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Allotment

2009-09-09T07:52:35Z

Giantsshoulders: /* Allotments in the United Kingdom */ spelling

[[Image:Allotment1.jpg|right|thumb|A typical allotment plot, [[Essex]], [[England]] ]]

'''Allotment gardens''' are characterized by a concentration in one place of a few or up to several hundreds of land parcels that are assigned to individual families. In allotment gardens, the parcels are cultivated individually, contrary to other [[community garden]] types where the entire area is tended collectively by a group of people.<ref>MacNair, E., 2002. The Garden City Handbook: How to Create and Protect Community Gardens in Greater Victoria. Polis Project on Ecological Governance. University of Victoria, Victoria BC, Canada.</ref>
The individual size of a parcel ranges between 200 and 400 square meters, and often the plots include a shed for tools and shelter. The individual gardeners are organized in an allotment association which leases the land from the owner who may be a public, private or ecclesiastical entity, provided that it is only used for gardening (i.e. growing vegetables, fruits and flowers), but not for residential purposes. The gardeners have to pay a small membership fee to the association, and have to abide with the corresponding constitution and by-laws. On the other hand, the membership entitles them to certain democratic rights.<ref>Drescher, A.W., 2001. The German Allotment Gardens — a Model for Poverty Alleviation and Food Security in Southern African Cities? Proceedings of the Sub-Regional Expert Meeting on Urban Horticulture, Stellenbosch, South Africa, January 15–19, 2001, FAO/University of Stellenbosch, 2001.</ref>, <ref>Drescher, A.W., Holmer, R.J. and D.L. Iaquinta 2006. Urban Homegardens and Allotment Gardens for Sustainable Livelihoods: Management Strategies and Institutional Environments. In: Kumar, B.M. and Nair, P.K. (Eds) 2006. Tropical Homegardens: A Time-Tested Example of Agroforestry. Series: Advances inAgroforestry 3, Springer, New York</ref>

== Socio-cultural and economic functions of allotment gardens ==
The [http://www.jardins-familiaux.org/''Office International du Coin de Terre et des Jardins Familiaux''], a Luxembourg-based organization representing 3 million European allotment gardeners since 1926, describes the socio-cultural and economic functions of allotment gardens as follows:
* for the ''community'' a better quality of urban life through the reduction of noise, the binding of dust, the establishment of open green spaces in densly populated areas;
* for the ''environment'' the conservation of [[biotope]]s and the creation of linked biotopes;
* for ''families'' a meaningful leisure activity and the personal experience of sowing, growing, cultivating and harvesting healthy vegetables amidst high-rise buildings and the concrete jungle;
* for ''children and adolescents'' a place to play, communicate and to discover nature and its wonders;
* for ''working people'' relaxation from the stress of work;
* for the ''unemployed'' the feeling of being useful and not excluded as well as a supply of fresh vegetables at minimum cost;
* for ''immigrant families'' a possibility of communication and better integration in their host country;
* for ''disabled persons'' a place enabling them to participate in social life, to establish contacts and overcome loneliness;
* for ''senior citizens'' a place of communication with persons having the same interests as well as an opportunity of self-fulfillment during the period of retirement.

== Allotments in the United Kingdom ==
In the [[United Kingdom]], an '''allotment''' is a small area of land, let out at a nominal yearly [[renting|rent]] by [[local government]] or independent allotment associations, for individuals to grow their own food. This could be considered as an example of a [[community garden]] system for [[urban area|urban]] and to some extent [[rural]] folk.

The allotment system began in the [[18th century]]: for example, a 1732 engraving of [[Birmingham, England]] shows the town encircled by allotments, some of which still exist to this day. Following the [[Enclosure Act]]s and the Commons Act of 1876 the land available for personal cultivation by the poor was greatly diminished. To fulfil the need for land allotment legislation was included. The law was first fully codified in the Small Holdings and Allotment Act of 1908, it was modified by the Allotments Act of 1922 and subsequent Allotments Acts up until 1950.

Under the acts a local government is required to maintain an "adequate provision" of land, usually a large allotment field which can then be subdivided into allotment gardens for individual residents at a low rent. The rent is set at what a person "may reasonably be expected to pay" (1950), in 1997 the average rent for a statutary 10 square [[rod (unit)|rod]]s (250 square metres or one-sixteenth of an acre) plot was £22 a year. Each plot cannot exceed 40 square rods (1012 m²) and must be used for the production of [[fruit]] or [[vegetable]]s for consumption by the plotholder and their family (1922), or of flowers for use by the plotholder and their family. The exact size and quality of the plots is not defined. The council has a duty to provide sufficient allotments to meet demand. The total income from allotments was £2.61 million and total expenditure was £8.44 million in 1997. In 2000 [[metrication]] legislation made it illegal to use square rods as a unit of pricing, which must now be priced in square metres.

[[Image:Allotments_in_London_E15.jpg|thumb|left|Allotments in the East End of London on the banks of the [[Prescott Channel]]]]
[[Image:jordansallotments.jpg|thumb|right|Allotments in the rural village of [[Jordans]]]]

The total number of plots has varied greatly over time. In the 19th and early 20th century, the allotment system supplied much of the fresh vegetables eaten by the poor. In 1873 there were 244,268 plots and by 1918 there were around 1,500,000 plots. While numbers fell in the 1920s and 1930s, following an increase to 1,400,000 during [[World War II]] there were still around 1,117,000 plots in 1948. This number has been in decline since then, falling to 600,000 by the late 1960s. The Thorpe Inquiry of 1969 investigated the decline and put the causes as the decline in available land, increasing prosperity and the growth of other leisure activities.

Increased interest in "green" issues from the 1970s revived interest in allotment gardening, whilst the National Society of Allotment and Leisure Gardeners (NSALG), and the Scottish Allotments and Gardens Society (SAGS) in Scotland, continued to campaign on the behalf of allotment users. However, the rate of decline was only slowed, falling from 530,000 plots in 1970 to 497,000 in 1977, although there was a substantial waiting list. By 1980 the surge in interest was over, and by 1997 the number of plots had fallen to around 265,000, with waiting lists of 13,000 and 44,000 vacant plots. The keeping of an allotment is colloquially referred to as [[allotmenteering]].

In 2006, a report commissioned by the [[London Assembly<ref>[http://www.london.gov.uk/assembly/reports/environment/allotments.pdf A lot to lose: London's disappearing allotments.]</ref> identified that whilst demand was at an all time high across the capital, the pressures caused by high density building was further decreasing the amount of allotment land. The issue was given further publicity when [[The Guardian]] newspaper reported on the community campaign against the potential impact of the development for the [[2012 Summer Olympics]] on the future of the century-old [[Manor Garden Allotments]]. <ref>[http://environment.guardian.co.uk/conservation/story/0,,2011925,00.html Why are they destroying our 100-year-old allotments to make way for the 'Green Olympics'?]</ref>

== Characteristics and historical background of allotment gardens in Germany ==
The history of the allotment gardens in [[Germany]] is closely connected with the period of [[industrialization]] and [[urbanization]] in Europe during the [[19th century]] when a large number of people migrated from the rural areas to the cities to find employment and a better life. Very often, these families were living under extremely poor conditions suffering from inappropriate housing, [[malnutrition]] and other forms of social neglect. To improve their overall situation and to allow them to grow their own food, the city administrations, the churches or their employers provided open spaces for garden purposes. These were initially called the “gardens of the poor” and were later termed as “allotment gardens”.

The idea of organized allotment gardening reached a first peak after 1864, when the so-called “[[Daniel Gottlob Moritz Schreber | Schreber]] Movement” started in the city of [[Leipzig]] in [[Saxony]]. A public initiative decided to lease areas within the city, with the purpose to make it possible for children to play in a healthy environment, and in harmony with nature. Later on, these areas included actual gardens for children, but soon adults tended towards taking over and cultivating these gardens. This kind of gardening type rapidly gained popularity not only in Germany, but also in other European countries, such as Austria and Switzerland.<ref>Crouch, D. 2000. Reinventing Allotments for the Twenty-First Century: The UK Experience. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 523:135–142.</ref><ref>Sidblad, S. 2000. Swedish Perspectives of Allotment and Community Gardening. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 523:151–160.</ref><ref>Haavie, S. 2001, [http://www.21firstst.com/parsell/forskning.asp Parsellhagedyrking i Oslo] — en statusoversikt. Rapport/Osloforskning 1/2001 (ISBN 82-8053-000-2)</ref><ref>Jensen, N. 1996. [http://www.cityfarmer.org/DenmarkHistory.html Allotment Guide] — Copenhagen & Surroundings /Kolonihave Guide Kobenhavn & Omegn, Copenhagen, Denmark.</ref><ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,410799,00.html Rent-a-Plot: Germany's Garden Ghettos.] ''Der Spiegel'', 2006-04-11. Accessed 2006-03-17.</ref>

The aspect of [[food security]] provided by allotment gardens became particularly evident during [[World War]]s I and II. The socio-economic situation was very miserable, particularly as regards the nutritional status of urban residents. Many cities were isolated from their rural hinterlands and agricultural products did not reach the city markets anymore or were sold at very high prices at the black markets. Consequently, food production within the city, especially fruit and vegetable production in [[home gardens]] and allotment gardens, became essential for survival (''[http://homepage.mac.com/cityfarmer/.Pictures/Corbis%20Photos/39Berliners.jpg Berliners cultivate vegetables by the ruins of the Reichstag] in June 1946''). The importance of allotment gardens for food security was so obvious that in 1919, one year after the end of [[World War I]], the first legislation for allotment gardening in Germany was passed. The so-called “Small Garden and Small-Rent Land Law”, provided security in land tenure and fixed leasing fees. In 1983, this law was amended by the “Federal Allotment Gardens Act”[http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bkleingg/index.html ''(Bundeskleingartengesetz)'']. Today, there are still about 1.4 million allotment gardens in Germany covering an area of 47,000 ha.<ref>Gröning, G., Wolschke-Bulmahn, J., 1995. Von Ackermann bis Ziegelhütte, Studien zur Frankfurter Geschichte, Band 36. Frankfurt am Main, Germany.</ref>

Nevertheless, the importance of allotment gardening in Germany has shifted over the years. While in times of crisis and widespread poverty (from 1850 to 1950), allotment gardening was a part time job, and its main importance was to enhance food security and improve food supply, its present functions have to be seen under a different point of view. In times of busy working days and the hectic urban atmosphere, allotment gardens have turned into recreational areas and locations for social gatherings. As green oases within oceans of asphalt and cement, they are substantially contributing to the conservation of nature within cities. What was previously a part time job is nowadays considered as a hobby where the hectic schedule of the day becomes a distant memory, while digging the flowerbeds and getting a little soil under the fingernails. However, in situations of weak economy and high unemployment rates, gardens become increasingly important for food production again.[http://www.kleingarten-bund.de/fachthemen/details.php?action=showArticle&articleNr=277 (''Schrebergärten voll im Trend'')]

== Allotment gardens in Sweden ==
In 1895, the first allotment garden of [[Sweden]] was established in [[Malmö]], followed by [[Stockholm]] in 1904. The local authorities were inspired by Anna Lindhagen, a social-democratic leader and a woman in the upper ranks of society, who visited allotment gardens in [[Copenhagen]] and was delighted by them. In her first book on the topic devoted to the usefulness of allotment gardens she wrote: “''For the family, the plot of land is a uniting bond, where all family members can meet in shared work and leisure. The family father, tired with the cramped space at home, may rejoice in taking care of his family in the open air, and feel responsible if the little plot of earth bestows a very special interest upon life''.” <ref>Lindhagen, A., 1916. Koloniträdgårdar och planterade gårdar, Stockholm.</ref> Anna Lindhagen is said to have met Lenin when he passed through Stockholm from the exile in Switzerland on their return trip to Russia after the February Revolution in 1917 <ref>Conan, M. 1999, From Vernacular Gardens to a Social Anthropology of Gardening: In: Conan, M. (Ed) Perspectives on Garden Histories. Series Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium on the History of Landscape Architecture (Vol 21): 181-204 [http://www.doaks.org/Perspectives/perspec09.pdf]</ref>. She invited him to the allotment gardens of "Barnangen" to show all its benefits. However, she did not win his approval. Lenin was totally unresponsive to this kind of activity. To poke in the soil was to prepare the ground for political laziness in the class struggle. The workers should not be occupied with gardening, they should rather devote themselves to the proletarian revolution <ref>Per Gustafsson, Lena Ignestam and Christel Lundberg, 2000. The return of Lenin.A film made based on (the true) story about Lenin´s visit in Stockholm 1917, and his relationship to allotment gardens. [http://www.gungardens.kulturservern.se/filmer/the_return_of_lenin.mov]</ref>.

The [http://www.koloni.org/ Swedish Federation of Leisure Gardening] was founded in 1921 and represents today more than 26000 allotment and leisure gardeners. The members are organized in about 275 local societies all over Sweden. The land is usually rented from the local authorities.

== Allotment gardens in the Philippines ==

[[Image:Kauswagan_Allotment_Garden.JPG|thumb|right|Kauswagan Allotment Garden, Cagayan de Oro]]In 2003, the first allotment garden of the [[Philippines]] was established in [[Cagayan de Oro]] City, [[Northern Mindanao]] as part of a European Union funded project. <ref>Holmer, R.J., Clavejo, M.T., Dongus, S., and Drescher, A., 2003. Allotment Gardens for Philippine Cities. Urban Agriculture Magazine, 11, 29-31. [http://www.ruaf.org/node/358]</ref> Meanwhile, with the assistance of the German Embassy in Manila and several private donors from Germany, this number has grown to five self-sustaining gardens located in different urban areas of the city, enabling a total of 55 urban poor families the legal access to land for food production. Further four allotment gardens, two of them within the premises of public elementary schools are presently being set up for additional 36 families using the [[Asset Based Community Development (ABCD)]] approach. [http://puvep.xu.edu.ph/snews/headlines/health_promoting_schools/ (''Health Promoting Schools, Ecological Sanitation and School Gardens in Mindanao'')] Some of the gardeners belong to the socially most disadvantaged group in the city, the garbage pickers of the city’s landfill site <ref>Gerold, J. Drescher, A.W., Holmer, R. J., 2005. Kleingärten zur Armutsminderung - Schrebergärten in Cagayan de Oro. Südostasien 21 (4): 76 - 77.</ref>. Aside of different [[vegetables]], the gardeners grow also [[herbs]] and [[tropical fruits]]. In some gardens, small animals are kept and fish ponds are maintained to avail the gardeners of additional protein sources for the daily dietary needs. Each allotment garden has a [[compost]] heap where biodegradable wastes from the garden as well as from the neighboring households are converted into organic fertilizer, thus contributing to the integrated solid waste management program of the city. Further, all gardens are equipped with so-called urine-diverting [[ecological sanitation]] toilets similar to practices in Danish allotment gardens described by Bregnhøj et al. <ref>Bregnhøj, H., Eilersen A.M., von Krauss, M.K., Backlund, A. 2003: Experiences with Ecosan in Danish Allotment Gardens and in Development Projects. Proceedings to 2nd International Symposium on ecological sanitation "Ecosan - closing the loop", April 7 to 11, 2003 Lübeck, Germany.[http://www.puvep.com/publications/Experiences%20with%20ecosan%20in%20Danish%20allotment%20gardens%20and%20in%20development%20projects.pdf]</ref>

== Translation of "allotment gardens" into other languages ==

* Danish: "Kolonihave"
* Dutch: "Volkstuin"
* Finnish: "Siirtolapuutarha"
* French: "Jardins familiaux", "Jardin communautaire"
* German: "Kleingärten" or "Schrebergärten", in former times also "Armengärten", "Sozialgärten", "Arbeitergärten", "Rotkreuzgärten", "Eisenbahnergärten" but nowadays rarely used
* Italian: "Orti Sociali"
* Japanese: "クラインガルテン"
* Norwegian: "Kolonihage" or "Parsellhager"
* Polish: "Ogródki działkowe"
* Portuguese: "Hortas comunitárias"
* Spanish: "Huertas comunitarias"
* Swedish: "Koloniträdgården"
* Swiss: "Familiengärten", "Jardins familiaux"

==Famous people who run an allotment==
* [[Charles, Prince of Wales]]
* [[Alan Titchmarsh]]


==Citations==
<references/>

== Further reading==
* ''The Allotment: Its Landscape and Culture'', [[David Crouch]] and [[Colin Ward]] Paperback 314 pages (June 1, 1997), Publisher: Five Leaves Publications ISBN 0-907123-91-0
* ''The Allotment Handbook'', Sophie Andrews, "A guide to promoting and protecting your allotment site." Publisher [[Ecologic Books]], [http://www.eco-logicbooks.com/index.cfm?fa=book_details&book_id=2]
* ''The Art of Allotments'', David Crouch, Publisher: Five Leaves Publications [http://www.eco-logicbooks.com/index.cfm?fa=book_details&book_id=533]
* ''The Allotment Chronicles: A Social History of Allotment Gardening'', Steve Poole, Publisher: Silver Link Publishing, ISBN 1 85794 268 X
* ''Building Food Secure Neighbourhoods: the Role of Allotment Gardens'', Robert J. Holmer, Axel W. Drescher: Urban Agriculture Magazine (2005), No. 15, p. 19-20 [http://www.ruaf.org/node/783]

==See also==
* [[Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)]]
* [[Ecological sanitation]]
* [[Food security]]
* [[Gardening]]
* [[Intercultural Garden]]
* [[Leisure]]
* [[Organic gardening]]
* [[P-Patch]]
* [[Self-sufficiency]]
* [[Simple living]]
* [[Victory garden]]
* [[Urban agriculture]]
* [[Urban horticulture]]

==External links==
* [http://www.nsalg.org.uk National Society of Allotment and Leisure Gardeners]
* [http://www.allotments4all.co.uk/ Allotments4All] Lively allotment related website with gallery, forum and wiki
* [http://www.spiralseed.co.uk/allotment/ A Permaculture Allotment?] Discussion of allotments from a [[permaculture]] perspective
* [http://www.kleingarten-museum.de/ Deutsches Kleingarten Museum] Website of the German Allotment Garden Museum in Leipzig
* [http://www.zahradkari.cz/ Czech Union of Allotment and Leisure Gardeners] Ceský Zahrádkárský Svaz
* [http://homepage3.nifty.com/jkg-ken/ Allotment Garden Association of Japan]日本クラインガルテン研究会
* [http://www.kolonihager.no/ Allotment Garden Association of Norway] Norsk Kolonihageforbund
* [http://www.koloni.org/ Swedish Federation of Leisure Gardening] Svenska Förbundet för Koloniträdgardar och Fritidsbyar
* [http://www.jardins-familiaux.org/ Office International du Coin de Terre et des Jardins Familiaux ]A European non-profit making regroupment of national allotm
ent and leisure garden federations with more than 3.000.000 affiliated leisure gardeners and leisure garden families.
* [http://www.internationale-gaerten.de/ Association of International Gardens, Göttingen]
* [http://www.allotments-uk.com/ Allotments UK is a vast information site for people who want/own an Allotment]
* [http://scripts.dsl.pipex.net/sitetracker/dlcount.php?id=auxm40&url=/ShortHistoryOfAllotments.pdf A Brief History of Allotments in England and Wales]
* [http://www.sags.org.uk/ Scottish Allotments and Gardens Society]

[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Community]]
[[Category:Community development]]
[[Category:Community organizing]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Environment]]
[[Category:Gardening]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Urban agriculture]]
[[Category:Urban studies and planning]]

Soil minerals

2009-09-09T07:41:29Z

Giantsshoulders: ORIGINAL STUB

'''A mineral''' is defined as being a naturally occuring [[element]] or [[compound]] that is formed by [[inorganic]] processes and contains a crystalline structure. Minerals form the basic framework of [[soil]].

Green manure

2009-09-09T07:37:50Z

Giantsshoulders: link

'''Green manures''' are particular plants which are grown to improve the structure and/or the fertility of the [[soil]]. They break up heavy soils and improve [[drainage]]. They can help light soils hold more water. Different green manures have roots of differing depths. These can mine for different [[Soil minerals|minerals]] in the soil, bring them to the surface and keep them there. Green manures of the [[Legume]] family increase [[Nitrogen]] in the soil which will benefit the following crop. Some, such as [[Alfalfa]], root down very deep and bring up minerals to the top layer of the soil. The green tops, when dug in, add [[humus]] and [[nutrients]].

The gardener should turn the plants into the soil at the appropriate time for each variety. Some Green Manures can be clipped during their season and these clippings can be left on the soil as a [[mulch]] and then dug in eventually to improve the [[tilth]] still further.

Overwintered Green Manures, such as Alfalfa, [[Tares]] and [[Ryegrass]], will keep the ground covered and so protect the soil and help prevent the leaching of nutrients.

If used in a [[rotation]] system, check the family of plants being used. [[Red Clover]], for example, being a Legume would fit into a rotation in place of [[beans]], and would be followed by a leafy vegetable such as [[spinach]] or [[lettuce]].

==Main growing season==
Sow a quick-growing Green manure (such as [[Mustard]], [[Buckwheat]] or [[Fenugreek]]), fitted in before sowing a second vegetable crop on that patch of ground.

==Late summer==
Sow a Green manure that will keep the ground covered and protected over the winter (such as Red Clover, [[Field Beans]], Alfalfa, Tares, Annual Ryegrass or [[Phacelia]])

Soil

2009-09-09T07:12:07Z

Giantsshoulders: links

{{Inc|
[[Image:Lössacker.jpg|thumb|[[Loess]] field in Germany]]
[[Image:Global_soil_regions.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map of global soil regions from the [[USDA]]]]
[[Image:Soil profile.png|thumb|[[Soil horizons]] are formed by combined biological, chemical and physical alterations.]]
[[Image:Soil Survey-Sample.jpg|thumbnail|Sample of an [[aerial photo]] from a published soil survey]]
[[Image:NRCSIA99560.png|thumb|A homeowner tests soil to apply only the nutrients needed. Farmers practice the same testing procedure.]]
[[Image:Rammed earth wall - Eden Project.jpg|thumb|Due to their thermal mass, [[rammed earth]] walls fit in with environmental sustainability aspirations.]]
[[image:NRCSIA99567.png|thumb|A homeowner sifts soil made from his [[compost]] bin in background. Composting is an excellent way to recycle household and yard wastes.]]
[[Image:20060422094342.jpg|right|thumb|Sediment in the Yellow River.]]
Soil. The soil is a superficial covering of the earth's crust, more or less well adapted to the growth of plants. It is usually only a few inches thick. Below this is a subsoil often differing, especially in humid climates, from the soil proper in color, texture, or chemical composition. A very striking definition has been suggested by Sir John B. Lawes, who considered the soil to be rotten subsoil, and the subsoil rotting rock. The term soil is occasionally used in a more comprehensive way to include both the soil and the subsoil.

The soil adapted to the growth of the higher plants consists of fragments of rocks or [[mineral]]s, organic matter, soil solution, and a soil atmosphere. The mineral fragments vary in size from the finest [[clay]] particles to gravel and even boulders. The organic matter is derived from low organisms, from previous vegetation, or from growing plants; as also from [[stable manure]], and occasionally fish or animal matter added to the soil by man. The soil solution consists of water carrying dissolved substances derived from the soil grains and from the organic matter, as well as from fertilizing materials artificially applied, and constitutes a [[nutrient]] solution from which the plant derives its mineral constituents. The soil atmosphere differs from the ordinary atmosphere above the soil in being richer in [[carbon dioxide]] and [[nitrogen]], and containing more water vapor and less [[oxygen]].

In origin there are two main classes of soils: sedimentary soils, formed by the disintegration and decomposition of rocks in place; and transported soils, including those of alluvial, glacial, and aeolian origin. The word alluvial is here used to include all water-transported material; the term is, however, frequently used in a more specific sense to indicate the recent flood deposit of rivers.

Soils are classified according to their origin and their mechanical and chemical composition and properties. Genetically, they are classified according to the rock from which they are derived, as granite soil, limestone; or according to the manner of their origin, as alluvial, lacustrian, or drift. Mechanically, they are classified broadly into stony, gravelly, sandy, sandy loam, loam, clay loam, clay, adobe, black-waxy, or according to some other physical property; chemically, into calcareous, humus, alkali, and according to other striking chemical features. In the soil survey of the United States Department of Agriculture a local name is adopted for each type under which the specific characters are given; examples of this are Hartford sandy loam, Norfolk sand, San Joaquin adobe.

The physical properties of soils concern the size and arrangement of the particles, and the relation of these to each other and to the organic matter; also the soil atmosphere, the soil moisture, and the physical forces of heat and gravitation. In these there is an intimate relation with physiography or the form and exposure of the surface of the land, as well as to climatology.

There are, undoubtedly, constant physical changes going on in the soil, as well as chemical changes, which have much to do with the best development of vegetation. The soil-moisture may be looked upon as a nutrient solution, dissolving its material from the difficultly soluble compounds in the soil and from fertilizers artificially applied. The amount of substances in solution varies with the moisture content and with the way moisture is supplied to the soil. The dissolved substances, naturally present in the soil or derived from fertilizers, influence the solubility of the soil components, rendering them more or less soluble according to their nature and existing conditions. It is probable that there is a normal weathering of the soil material which produces a certain concentration in the soil solution which will be maintained on the gradual withdrawal of nutrient material by the plant. However, this natural weathering is often not sufficient in amount to produce the yield and quality of crops desired, and this may be increased by methods of cultivation and fertilization so that crops may annually remove larger quantities of nutrient substances without any particular exhaustion to the soil.

It is certain that these nutrient materials do not accumulate to any considerable extent in soils in humid countries, as they are liable to be leached away and also to recombine, forming difficultly soluble compounds with the material of the soil-grains. A soil is in good heart or good condition when the physical conditions, such as the water-supply, soil atmosphere, and temperature relations, are favorable, and when the weathering of the material is sufficient to furnish an abundant and constant nutrient solution in the soil moisture.

One of the most potent agents in the weathering of soils is the organic material contained. This is unquestionably due largely to the amount of carbon dioxide formed, which renders many of the nutrient matters much more soluble. Moreover, the organic matter forms a culture medium for bacteria, ferments, and the various organized and unorganized agents which assist in breaking down the organic material, and facilitate as well the weathering of the other soil components. Soils in general have remarkable power of absorbing on the surface of the soil-grains vast quantities of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and other gases, and of other nutrient materials, which, while soluble and actually dissolved, do not readily diffuse out into the solution between the soil-grains.

The influence of fertilizers is therefore twofold: the direct addition of plant-food for the immediate use of plants, and the action of the fertilizing components upon the solubility of the otherwise difficultly soluble compounds in the soil. There are other offices which are very strikingly shown in the case of lime. This substance, when in the form of either caustic or slaked lime, corrects the acidity which is very often present in soils. It changes the structure of soils. It renders some of the soil components much more soluble, especially when the lime is in the form of the sulfate or gypsum, and it has undoubtedly a physiological role which enables the plant to assimilate larger quantities of other nutrient matters even in amounts which would be detrimental if the lime-salt were not present in excess.

The principal objects of the cultivation of the soil are to secure proper aeration, to conserve the moisture supply, and to improve the drainage. The irrigation and artificial drainage of soils are treated elsewhere.

The physical properties of texture and structure, that is, the size and arrangement of the soil-grains, have a greater practical importance with field crops and the relation of crops to soil under extensive cultivation than upon horticultural crops either in the field or greenhouse, where intensive methods are used. Particularly in the eastern states, where the natural rainfall is relied upon for the water supply, these physical properties have great influence in determining the relation of crops to soils. This is due in large part to the influence of the physical properties upon the water supply, and the commercial values of many soils are dependent largely upon this one condition. This is notably the case with the early truck crops, with corn, wheat, and grass lands, and with special products such as celery, cranberries, and other horticultural crops. With intensive cultivation, however, the flavor, appearance, texture, and general quality of the crop assume greater commercial importance, and even with intensive methods these are largely influenced by the character of the soil. This is shown in a striking manner in the localization of certain interests, even under the most intensive system of agriculture, such as the production of the fine lettuce around Boston, of the carnations, violets, tomatoes, and roses in other districts. With the present specialization in these lines, it is not only necessary that one should have a knowledge of the methods of cultivation, but should have the proper soil conditions as well as suitable climatic conditions; and to such an extent has this specialization been carried that different varieties of roses, for example, are best grown in different localities where the soils are slightly different. These matters must be realized by the horticulturist in order to attain the highest degree of success in any particular undertaking.

Soils for potting.

Strictly speaking, there are but two distinct kinds of soils, though there are several modifications or physical differences in both. These are mineral soils and organic soils or peat. Peat is formed in temperate climates by the accumulation of vegetable matter in swamps, or in some parts of the world under peculiar atmospheric conditions (see Peat). Mineral soils, which cover the greater portion of the earth's surface, are formed by the disintegration of rocks and stones through the agency of water, frost, or the atmosphere. Peaty soils are composed almost entirely of vegetable matter, with but little mineral matter. Mineral soils are just the reverse. The physical differences in peat are practically reduced to two, viz., the absence or presence of fiber. The physical differences in mineral soils vary considerably from almost pure clay to almost pure sand; indeed, the mechanical (or physical) analysis of mineral soils is based largely upon the proportions of clay and sand.

The composition of soils can be still further known by chemical analysis, but to the average gardener this is not necessary. Moreover, it is an operation of great nicety and one that requires an experienced chemist to perform. The chemical constituents which plants derive from the soil are present in most soils, though in varying degree, but they are sure to be present in ample quantity in the potting soil selected by an experienced gardener. The air and water may furnish as much as 98 per cent of the material with which the plant body is built up in some cases, and only the remaining 2 per cent be strictly derived from the soil. Three important nutrient elements are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Nitrogen composes four-fifths of the atmosphere and the soil absorbs it chemically through the action of bacteria when the soil is in good physical condition. Hence the importance of remembering always that air in the soil is as important as water. Sorauer, in his "Physiology of Plants," page 56, says: "The ideal condition of a soil is one in which it resembles a sponge, and in which it will retain the greatest amount of nutritive substances and water without losing its capacity for absorbing air."

The capacity of soils to retain moisture varies considerably. A clay loam is more retentive of moisture than a sandy loam. The experienced gardener therefore selects a clay loam for his strong-rooting, large-leaved tropical plants, because transpiration is so much greater in these plants. For a general collection of greenhouse and small-growing tropical plants he selects a good loam. For cacti, agaves, and other succulent plants which will not take as much water at all seasons as other plants, he selects a sandy loam. For ferns, most of the Ericaceae and Gesneraceae, he selects peat; while for nepenthes, orchids, bromeliads, and the epiphytic aroids he selects fern or kalmia root. Other materials which a gardener should always have on hand when he has a large and varied collection of plants are: leaf-mold, which is made by collecting leaves and storing for at least two years, turning them over occasionally to facilitate decay; living or fresh sphagnum moss; sand; charcoal, and some convenient manures, such as pulverized sheep-manure and bone-meal.

Growing plants in pots is very different from growing them in borders or the open ground. The experienced gardener digs the turf only from good pasture or meadow land, so that it shall be full of the fibrous roots of the grass. But before using the turf for potting it should be placed in square piles, turf downward, for at least six months in order to kill the grass and all vegetable life. Fern root should also be collected and stored the same length of time in order to kill out the ferns. (Fig. 3625.) Raw and very coarse soils are usually sifted before being used for most greenhouse plants. Shallow sieves are used for this purpose. (Fig. 3626.)

Except for sowing seeds and for potting seedlings and freshly rooted cuttings, thoroughly decayed and homogeneous soils should not be sifted, but should be broken into small lumps, as the small lumps assist materially in aerating the soil. If the soil is sifted too much it becomes very fine, packs close and allows too little aeration. Leaf-mold is decayed vegetable matter, or humus. It may have little manurial value, but is used by gardeners to make soils "light" or spongy. For most young plants a good proportion added to the soil is excellent as it encourages root-growth.

Sand is the best medium for rooting cuttings of the larger number of plants. It is also added to soils to increase their porosity, especially when potting very young plants. Silver sand is best.

In potting plants, experienced gardeners make potting mixtures or add a variety of materials to the soil to suit the requirements of different plants. For young seedlings or for freshly rooted cuttings, the compost should be of a light and porous nature, but as plants increase in size and vigor a heavier and richer mixture is usually given, that is, if plants are to be grown on as specimens; but the proportion of nutrient substances used in a potting mixture should be determined by the vigor of the plants. It is always better to use too little plant-food than too much; if too much is used it often becomes available faster than the roots of plants can absorb it, often with fatal results. Many amateur plant-growers in their over-anxiety to grow fine plants make this fatal mistake.

In most gardens the greenhouse space is limited, and a gardener cannot always develop his plants to their fullest capacity or he has to reduce his variety and numbers. This, then, determines in the mind of an experienced gardener the composition of his potting mixtures. His aim should be to grow the finest possible specimens in the smallest possible pots and space.
}}

==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Crop rotation

2009-09-09T07:07:16Z

Giantsshoulders: ORIGINAL

'''Crop rotation''' or '''Crop sequencing''' is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of [[Crop (agriculture)|crops]] in the same area in sequential seasons for various benefits such as to avoid the build up of [[pathogens]] and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped. Crop rotation also seeks to balance the fertility demands of various crops to avoid excessive depletion of soil nutrients. A traditional component of crop rotation is the replenishment of [[nitrogen]] through the use of [[green manure]] in sequence with cereals and other crops. It is one component of [[polyculture]]. Crop rotation can also improve [[soil structure]] and [[fertility (soil)|fertility]] by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants. {{wp}}

Green manure

2009-09-09T06:59:12Z

Giantsshoulders:

'''Green manures''' are particular plants which are grown to improve the structure and/or the fertility of the [[soil]]. They break up heavy soils and improve [[drainage]]. They can help light soils hold more water. Different green manures have roots of differing depths. These can mine for different [[mineral]]s in the soil, bring them to the surface and keep them there. Green manures of the [[Legume]] family increase [[Nitrogen]] in the soil which will benefit the following crop. Some, such as [[Alfalfa]], root down very deep and bring up minerals to the top layer of the soil. The green tops, when dug in, add [[humus]] and [[nutrients]].

The gardener should turn the plants into the soil at the appropriate time for each variety. Some Green Manures can be clipped during their season and these clippings can be left on the soil as a [[mulch]] and then dug in eventually to improve the [[tilth]] still further.

Overwintered Green Manures, such as Alfalfa, [[Tares]] and [[Ryegrass]], will keep the ground covered and so protect the soil and help prevent the leaching of nutrients.

If used in a [[rotation]] system, check the family of plants being used. [[Red Clover]], for example, being a Legume would fit into a rotation in place of [[beans]], and would be followed by a leafy vegetable such as [[spinach]] or [[lettuce]].

==Main growing season==
Sow a quick-growing Green manure (such as [[Mustard]], [[Buckwheat]] or [[Fenugreek]]), fitted in before sowing a second vegetable crop on that patch of ground.

==Late summer==
Sow a Green manure that will keep the ground covered and protected over the winter (such as Red Clover, [[Field Beans]], Alfalfa, Tares, Annual Ryegrass or [[Phacelia]])

Green manure

2009-09-09T06:58:18Z

Giantsshoulders: links

'''Green manures''' are particular plants which are grown to improve the structure and/or the fertility of the [[soil]]. They break up heavy soils and improve [[drainage]]. They can help light soils hold more water. Different green manures have roots of differing depths. These can mine for different [[mineral]]s in the soil, bring them to the surface and keep them there. Green manures of the [[Legume]] family increase [[Nitrogen]] in the soil which will benefit the following crop. Some, such as [[Alfalfa]], root down very deep and bring up minerals to the top layer of the soil. The green tops, when dug in, add [[humus]] and [[nutrients]].

The gardener should turn the plants into the soil at the appropriate time for each variety. Some Green Manures can be clipped during their season and these clippings can be left on the soil as a [[mulch]] and then dug in eventually to improve the [[tilth]] still further.

Overwintered Green Manures, such as Alfalfa, [[Tares]] and [[Ryegrass]], will keep the ground covered and so protect the soil and help prevent the leaching of nutrients.

If used in a [[rotation]] system, check the family of plants being used. [[Red Clover]], for example, being a Legume would fit into a rotation in place of [[beans]], and would be followed by a leafy vegetable such as [[spinach]] or [[lettuce]].

==MAIN GROWING SEASON==
Sow a quick-growing Green manure (such as [[Mustard]], [[Buckwheat]] or [[Fenugreek]]), fitted in before sowing a second vegetable crop on that patch of ground.

==LATE SUMMER==
Sow a Green manure that will keep the ground covered and protected over the winter (such as Red Clover, [[Field Beans]], Alfalfa, Tares, Annual Ryegrass or [[Phacelia]])

Green manure

2009-09-09T06:50:03Z

Giantsshoulders: ORIGINAL

'''Green manures''' are particular plants which are grown to improve the structure and/or the fertility of the soil. They break up heavy soils and improve [[drainage]]. They can help light soils hold more water. Different green manures have roots of differing depths. These can mine for different minerals in the soil, bring them to the surface and keep them there. Green manures of the [[Legume]] family increase [[Nitrogen]] in the soil which will benefit the following crop. Some, such as [[Alfalfa]], root down very deep and bring up [[minerals]] to the top layer of the soil. The green tops, when dug in, add [[humus]] and [[nutrients]].

Turn the plants into the soil at the appropriate time for each variety. Some Green Manures can be clipped during their season and these clippings can be left on the soil to be dug in eventually to improve the [[tilth]] still further.

Overwintered Green Manures, such as Alfalfa, [[Tares]] and [[Ryegrass]], will keep the ground covered and so protect the soil and help prevent the leaching of nutrients.

If used in a [[rotation]] system, check the family of plants being used. [[Red Clover]], for example, being a Legume would fit into a rotation in place of [[beans]], and would be followed by a leafy vegetable such as [[spinach]] or [[lettuce]].

==MAIN GROWING SEASON==
Sow a quick-growing Green manure (such as Mustard, Buckwheat or Fenugreek), fitted in before sowing a second vegetable crop on that patch of ground.

==LATE SUMMER==
Sow a Green manure that will keep the ground covered and protected over the winter (such as Red Clover, [[Field Beans]], Alfalfa, Tares, Annual Ryegrass or [[Phacelia]])

Talk:Canna

2009-09-09T06:31:00Z

Giantsshoulders: Created page with 'This article is extracted from Bailey's cyclopaedia and is very much out of date. Update or happy with it?'

This article is extracted from Bailey's cyclopaedia and is very much out of date. Update or happy with it?

Canna

2009-09-09T06:27:19Z

Giantsshoulders: split very long paragraphs to make article readable

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''Canna''
| common_names = Canna
| growth_habit = herbaceous
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Cannaindica.jpg
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = Italian Group Canna cultivated in Brazil
| regnum = Plantae
| divisio = Magnoliophyta
| classis = Liliopsida
| ordo = Zingiberales
| familia = Cannaceae
| genus = Canna
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|
[[Image:Canna Alberich 20030824 014.jpg|thumb|200px|''Canna'' (Crozy Group) 'Alberich']]
Canna (name of oriental origin, of no application). Cannaceae. Popular tall ornamental plants, prized for their stately habit, strong foliage and showy flowers; much used for bedding.

Stout, unbranched: fls. mostly red or yellow, in a terminal raceme or panicle, very irregular: caps. 3-loculed and several to many-seeded (Fig. 779, p.) ; sepals(s) 3 and small and usually green; petals (ccc) 3, mostly narrow and pointed, green or colored; style (e) single and long; the stamens are commonly petal-like, oblanceolate bodies or staminodia (aaab), 2 or 3 of which are usually much produced and broadened, and one is deflexed and narrower and forms the lip of the fl. (b); the pollen is borne in a single-loculed anther (f), borne on the side of a narrow and more or less coiled staminodium.— In the latest monograph, 1912 (Kranzlin, in Engler's Pflanzenreich, hft. 56), 51 species of Canna are described from subtropical and tropical Amer. and Asia.

A generation or two ago, cannas were grown for their foliage or mass-effect. They were tall and long-jointed, with small and late flowers (Fig. 780). An old-time garden race of tall cannas was C. Annaei, raised by M. Annee, of France, from seeds of the true C. nepalensis, sown in 1848. The flowers from which the seeds were taken probably had been pollinated by some other species, most likely with C. glauca. In 1863, a new race appeared, as the result of the union of C. iridiflora with C. Warscewiczii. This hybrid was known as C. Ehemanni (and C. iridiflora hybrida). This was of intermediate stature, with showy foliage and better drooping flowers. Under this name plants are still sold, but they may not be identical with the original C. Ehemanni. This race has been variously crossed with other species and forms, and from innumerable seedlings there have been selected the dwarf and large-flowered cannas (Figs. 781,782), which have now practically driven out the old tall small-flowered forms. These dwarf cannas are often known as French cannas, from the country of their origin; also, as Crozy cannas, from a renowned breeder of them. Within recent years, another race of cannas has arisen from the amalgamation of our native C. flaccida with the garden forms and with C. iridiflora. These have come mostly from Italy and are known as Italian cannas; also as orchid-flowered cannas. The flowers are characterized by soft and flowing iris-like outlines, but they are short-lived. Of this class are the varieties Italia (Fig. 783), Austria, Bavaria, Burgundia, America, Pandora, Burbank and others. For a sketch of the evolution of the garden cannas, see J. G. Baker, Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc., Jan., 1894; also, for the history of the Italian race, Revue Horticole, 1895. 516, and Gardeners' Chronicle, Dec. 14, 1895; Kranzlin, cited above.

The culture of cannas is simple and easy. They demand a warm, friable, rich and moist soil. They are injured by frost, and therefore should not be planted out until the weather is thoroughly settled. For dense mass effects, set the plants not more than 1 foot apart each way, but if it is desired to show individual plants and their flowers at the best, give three times that amount of room to a single plant. Pick the flowers as soon as they wilt, to prevent the formation of seeds (which causes the plant to lessen flowering), and keep the plants in tidy condition. Give the soil and treatment that produce the best results with Indian corn.

New varieties are raised from seeds. The seeds usually germinate slowly, and sometimes not at all, unless the integument is cut or filed, or is softened by soaking in water; these precautions taken, they germinate quickly. Sow late in winter, in rather strong bottom heat, in flats or pots. Prick out, and give plenty of room. They should make blooming plants the first year.

Commonly, cannas are propagated by dividing the rootstock. This rootstock is a branchy mass, with many large buds. If stock is not abundant, as many plants may be made from a rootstock as there are buds, although the weak buds produce weak plants. Leave as much tissue as possible with each bud. These one-bud parts usually give best results if started in pots, so that the plant is 6 to 12 inches high at planting time. The commercial canna plants are grown mostly in pots. If one has sufficient roots, however, it is better not to cut so close, but to leave several strong buds on each piece (as shown in Fig. 784). These pieces may be planted directly in the ground, although more certain results are to be secured by starting them in the house in boxes or pots. If strong effects are desired, particuarly in shrub borders, it is well to plant the entire stool. In the fall, when tho plants are killed by frost and the tops have dried a few days, dig the roots, and let them dry, retaining some of the earth on them. Then store them on shelves in a cellar that will keep Irish or round potatoes well. Take care that the roots do not become too warm, particularly before cold weather sets in; nor too moist. Well-cured roots from matured plants usually keep without much difficulty. If they do not hold much earth, it is well to throw a thin covering of light soil over them, particularly if they are the highly improved kinds.

Cannas are commonly used only in formal beds, but most excellent effects may be secured by scattering them singly or in very small clumps in the hardy border or amongst shrubbery. Against a heavy background of green, the gaudy flowers show to their best, and the ragged effect of the dying flowers is not noticed. They also make excellent centerpieces for formal beds. The tall-growing cannas, with small and late flowers, have given way almost wholly to the modern race of Crozy or French dwarf cannas, which usually remain under 4 feet high, and give an abundance of large early flowers. The canna always must be used for bold planting effects, because the flowers have not sufficient durability to be very useful as cut- flowers. As individual blooms, the flowers are not usually attractive, but they are showy and interesting in the mass and at a distance. The new race of Italian or Flaccida cannas has more attractive flowers, but even these are most useful when on the plant.

It is impossible for the gardener to determine species of canna in the common garden forms. In fact, the species are little known except in herbaria and as wild plants growing in their original habitats. The monographers do not agree as to the definitions of what have been described as original or wild species. The following account of species is included more for the purpose of showing the range within the genus and of making a catalogue of leading botanical names than to set specific limits or to indicate what species- forms are in cultivation. The Crozy experiments began with crossing C. Warscewicsii with a variety of C. nepalensis of gardens (C. flaccida?) having large yellow flowers and very long creeping tubers; and some of the progeny was crossed with C. aureopicta (a garden form). The recent attractive orchid-flowered cannas spring largely from the C. flaccida forms.{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==
In the last three decades of the 20th century, Canna [[species]] have been categorised by two different [[taxonomists]], [[Paulus Johannes Maria Maas|Paul Maas]], from the [[Netherlands]] and [[Nobuyuki Tanaka]] from [[Japan]]. Both reduced the number of species from the 50-100 that had been accepted previously, and assigned most to being [[synonyms]]. Inevitably, there are some differences in their categorisations, and the individual articles on the species describes those differences{{wp}}.
{|
|- valign=top
|
* ''[[Canna amabilis]]'' T. Koyama & Nb. Tanaka
* ''[[Canna bangii]]'' Kraenzl.
* ''[[Canna coccinea]]'' Blanc.
* ''[[Canna compacta]]'' Rosc.
* ''[[Canna discolor]]'' Lindl.
* ''[[Canna flaccida]]'' Salisb.
* ''[[Canna glauca]]'' L.
* ''[[Canna indica]]'' L.
* ''[[Canna iridiflora]]'' Ruiz & Pav.
* ''[[Canna jacobiniflora]]'' T. Koyama & Nb. Tanaka
|
* ''[[Canna jaegeriana]]'' Urban.
* ''[[Canna liliiflora]]'' Warsc. ex Planch.
* ''[[Canna paniculata]]'' Ruiz & Pav.
* ''[[Canna patens]]'' Rosc.
* ''[[Canna pedunculata]]'' Sims
* ''[[Canna plurituberosa]]'' T. Koyama & Nb. Tanaka
* ''[[Canna speciosa]]'' Rosc.
* ''[[Canna stenantha]]'' Nb. Tanaka
* ''[[Canna tuerckheimii]]'' Kraenzl.
|}

See also [[Canna species synonyms]].

==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Canna AugusteFerrier 1679.jpg|''Canna'' (Foliage Group) 'Auguste Ferrier'
Image:Pink Canna.JPG|''Canna sp.'' 'pink dancer' in [[Escambray Mountains]], [[Cuba]]
Image:Canna YKH 1075.jpg|''Canna'' (Italian Group) 'Yellow King Humbert'
Image:hota-seed-canna.jpg|Detail of the seed pods and seeds.
Image:Canna TheresaBlakey 1061.jpg|''Canna'' (Crozy Group) 'Theresa Blakey'
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]
[[Category:Cannaceae| ]]