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Tree ferns

2009-06-18T14:35:38Z

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Tree ferns.

The term "tree fern" is applied commonly to ferns of the family Cyatheaceae, to distinguish
them from species of other families of ferns which, for the most part, are not at all
arborescent. A comparatively small number of Cyatheaceae, it is true, have the trunk short,
and oblique or decumbent; but in most species the trunk is erect and greatly elongate
(commonly 3 to 40 feet high) and the whole plant so unmistakably tree-like in size and
proportion, that the name "tree fern" is a most appropriate one for the family. The leaves
are usually large and are borne in a radiating palm-like crown at the apex of the trunk, or
caudex, as it is often called. The trunk itself, in the case of an ordinary mature
individual, is marked by numerous close-set leaf-scars; these serve to indicate not only the
relatively great age of the plant but its slow rate of continuous development, as well.

Tree ferns are primarily forest dwellers and occur either as component parts of the dominant
forest growth or, more commonly, as a sort of thicket or "under-forest" association in moist
partial shade beneath the crowns of the higher forest trees. They are nearly confined to wet
tropical mountain slopes which are not subject to drought or pronounced seasonal change;
they reach, therefore, their best development, both as to species and number of individuals,
upon lofty mountains and upon the seaward side of ranges which are drenched constantly by
cool moisture laden winds from the ocean.

The successful cultivation of tree ferns under glass is predicated upon these facts,
although not all the species here mentioned are horticulturally known in this country. It is
found that most species should be grown at a temperature of about 60° F. and in a rather
shallow soil; that a continuously wet but well-drained substratum is essential; and that in
general a tolerably high atmospheric humidity also is requisite for best growth. Very bright
sunlight must be guarded against in all but a few species, among these being the common
tropical American Cyathea arborea, which grows naturally in rather open places, and C.
furfuracea, a native of Cuba and Jamaica which assumes a not unattractive form in drier open
situations. As in other groups of ferns, there are certain species which demand unusual care
and minor variations of treatment, such as wrapping the trunk in sphagnum as a safeguard
against drying out. These special requirements can be determined only by experience.

The Cyatheaceae are divided technically into three tribes: Thyrsopterideae, Dicksonieae, and
Cyatheae. The first mentioned consists of a single species, Thyrsoptcris elegans, Kunze,
from Juan Fernandez. The two latter tribes may be distinguished as follows:

Sori terminal upon the veins, at or near the margin of the segments; indusia at least
bilobed, the outer lip formed of the more or less modified lobule of the leaf Dicksonieae.

Sori borne upon the back of the veins; indusium (if present) not formed of
the leaf-margin in any part.. Cyatheae.

The Dicksonieae consist of three genera:Culcita (often known as Balantium), with
about six species, all of small stature and nearly devoid of trunk; Dicksonia, with
five tropical American species and several hardy Australasian species, the latter not
uncommon in cultivation and capable of enduring unusually great extremes of cold;
and Cibotium, with four North American species and several which occur in Asia
and the islands of the Pacific.(See under Cibotium and Dicksonia.)

It is in the Cyatheae, however, that the greatest variety and extremes of leaf form
are noted, and consequently the species of this tribe are most highly esteemed in
cultivation. They are commonly associated under three genera: Cyathea, Alsophila, and
Hemitelia, distinguished mainly by characters of the indusia. One of the most graceful
species of all is Cyathea arborea, introduced into England from the West Indies by Admiral
Bligh in 1793. There are numerous species almost equally fine, many of which are not in
general cultivation. The species with clean trunks, from which the leaves are freely
deciduous after maturity, are the most pleasing; and among those which deserve especial
notice are the following: Cyathea minor, a very slender Cuban plant with trunk 6 to 12 feet
high and 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick, its several slender bipinnate leaves borne in a spreading
crown; C. portoricensis, a tall Porto Rican species with large nearly tripinnate leaves, its
rachises dark, lustrous, purplish brown; C. elegans, of Jamaica, a close ally of C. arborea,
often attaining a wide spread of leaf at an unusually early age; C. Werckleana, C. hemiotis,
and C. hastulata, of Costa Rica, a peculiar subgroup characterized by having the leaves
fully tripinnate, the ultimate rachises discontinuously alate;C.divergens, extending in one
form or another from the Andes to Costa Rica, its huge fronds exceedingly lax and sometimes
even in large plants recurved nearly to the ground; C. insignis of the Greater Antilles, in
technical characters allied to the well-known C. princeps of Mexico; C. suprastrigosa and C.
conspersa. of Costa Rica and Panama, delicate graceful tripinnatifid plants of the high
mountains; C. punctifera of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, a plant of lower range, its huge
tripinnatifid fronds remarkably beautiful from the strong contrast afforded by the slender
rich brown rachises and the unusually vivid green leaf-segments; C. aureonitens of Costa
Rica and Panama, a lofty plant with leaf-scars in distant zones, having the unusual habit
also of shedding piecemeal all its large tripinnatifid fronds, seasonally.

Of Alsophila, the two best-known species in cultivation are doubtless A. australis and A.
aspera, the latter a common West Indian plant. A. myosuroides, of Cuba, Mexico, and Central
America, has lately been reintroduced to cultivation. It is a remarkably handsome plant, its
rather harsh, heavy, gray-green, tripinnatifid leaves borne from a copious mass of slender,
glossy brown scales. Another beautiful species, A. Salvinii, from Mexico and Guatemala, has
very large tripinnate fronds, with woody castaneous rachises in striking contrast. A
favorite species in cultivation also is A. quadripinnata (A. pruinata), native in the West
Indies and from Mexico to Chile, its short trunk bearing huge four-pinnate fronds, bluish or
silvery white beneath. The genus Hemitelia includes not only plants of the above sort, with
tripinnatifid fronds (as, for example, the well-known H. capensis), but also plants of a
istinctly different type known as the subgenus Cnemidaria. These are H. horrida, of the
West Indies, and numerous related species of the American tropics, many of which have long
been cultivated in European conservatories. They are characterized mainly by short trunks
and large, leafy, simply pinnate or bipin- natifid fronds, and make a beautiful display in
cultivation. Among them may be mentioned H. speciosa, H. bella, H. grandifolia, (H.
insignis), H. spectabilis, and H. subincisa. Their characters have recently been discussed
at some length.

Considering the wealth of material available in the American tropics and the comparative
ease with which it may be secured, it is remarkable that so little attention has been given
to the introduction of recently described species. The novelty and beauty of many of these
render an effort to this end exceedingly desirable and advantageous from a horticultural
point of view. Costa Rica in particular has yielded many interesting new species within late
years. This region, which has been called the richest in the world, will doubtless be
equaled by certain parts of the Andes of South America, when that immense territory shall
have been adequately explored. William R. Maxon.

Cultivation of tender ferns.

To grow commercial varieties of ferns profitably, the first care should be to secure the
necessary number of properly built and equipped houses, with a conveniently arranged
workshop. The house which gives the most general satisfaction runs north and south, has an
even-span roof, and with a fall to roof of 6 inches to the foot. Its benches should be
arranged to be about 7 feet wide, with a 24-inch path on either side. In an 18-foot house
this will permit of having a 7-foot centertable, two 3 1/2 -foot side benches and two
24-inch paths. Benches should not be more than 3 feet above the walks, as this will bring
every part of the bench within easy reach, and will permit of every plant being in constant
sight and easily cared for, which fact is essential in the profitable cultivation of trade
ferns.

The width of house is immaterial, but when houses adjoin, a width of 27 feet has been found
to be very satisfactory, as this permits the construction of three 7-foot benches, two
24-inch paths, and two paths 2 1/2 feet wide under each gutter.

Thorough provision should be made for ventilation. For a 27-foot house, a continuous row of
ventilators of at least 3 feet in width should be provided, with some reliable apparatus for
raising same. Heating is the next important consideration. Either steam or hot water will
give equally good results if properly installed. The safest way for the average grower is to
give the heating contract to some reliable firm. Water-taps should be so arranged that a
25-foot hose attached to same will easily reach any part of the house. A 25 foot hose can
easily be carried about without injuring either itself or benches and plants; and iron pipe
is of only half the cost of good hose. In most fern-houses drip is a source of great
annoyance, and should be prevented by the use of drip-bars, by having a drip- groove plowed
into the headers immediately under the ventilating-sash, and also by having a groove in
sides of gutter-plates. This very slight additional expense will very soon pay for itself by
saving a great number of plants, especially when growing very small ferns in houses, such as
have been transplanted from spore pots into boxes. Ventilators should fit into a groove in
ridge of house and be hinged to the ridge. When ventilators are so arranged, air, which is
very desirable on a good many warm rainy days in the summer, can be given without having
plants in the houses suffering from excessive moisture. Burning of the foliage will also be
avoided, as the plants will at no time be exposed to the direct rays of the sun. Ventilators
hinged on header and opening on ridge will always give trouble. No matter what kind of
covering is put over the opening, if it efficiently excludes the burning sun's rays it will
also prevent the ingress of air.

A propagating-room should be provided; and in the case of general trade ferns raised from
spores, it is a very safe rule to calculate on having from 60 to 70 square inches of room in
the propagating-frame for every 1,000 plants desired. The propagating-frame should be 3 1/2
feet wide, have sides 9 inches high, and, to insure an even moisture, its bottom should be
covered to the thickness of 1 inch with fine cinders "with the fine ashes removed, which
make very clean and efficient drainage material. The frame should be covered with light sash
constructed with drip-bars, to carry off condensation.

Shading of fern-houses should have close attention. It is best effected by the application
of a suitable wash to the outside of glass on roof. The following composition for a wash has
given excellent results for a number of years: To two gallons of benzene or turpentine add
one pint (or more, according to time the shading is desired to remain on houses) of linseed
oil, five pounds of pure white lead and enough whitening to make proper thickness (which can
very easily be ascertained
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Fern

2009-06-18T14:30:07Z

Pradeep:

{{Inc|
Ferns. The plants included under this name comprise an entire order, made up of several
distinct families. They include plants varying in size from a hair- like creeping stem
bearing a few simple, moss-like leaves, to tall trees 80 or more feet in height, with a stem
or trunk nearly a foot in diameter. Singularly enough, the extremes in size are both found
in tropical regions, in which most of the species abound. Most of the ordinary native
species, as well as the larger part of those in cultivation, consist of an erect underground
stem or rootstock with leaves, often called fronds, clustered in dense crowns, or in the
cases of creeping stems with scattered leaves. In gardening parlance, other plants are
sometimes called ferns, as species of lycopodium and selaginella, as well as oa em Asparagus
plumosus.

In the life of an individual fern plant, two distinct phases occur, represented by two
separate and unlike plants. The ordinary fern plant represents the asexual phase of growth
(sporophyte), producing its spores normally in spore-cases, which are borne in masses on the
back or margin of the leaf, or in. a few cases are grouped in spikes or panicles, or in rare
cases spread in a layer over the entire under surface of the leaf. The sexual stage
(gamelophyte) develops from the germinating spore, and consists of a tiny usually scale-like
green heart- shaped prothallus, which bears the sex- organs (archegonia, female, and
antheridia, male) on the under surface. After fertilization in the archegonium, the egg
develops directly into a young fern plant. Many ferns also propagate vegetatively by runners
or offsets, by bulblet-like buds, and in certain species the tips of the leaves bend over
and take root, as in our common walking-leaf (Camptosorus, which see).

Ferns frequently hybridize. The crossing takes place naturally in the prothallium stage.
They are not crossed by hand, as are the seed-plants, but from the accidental mixing when
prothallia of allied species are growing together. It is a hybrid between two native
species; it has been found in the wild in several parts of New England.

Great diversity has existed in the matter of the separation of the ferns into genera.
Hooker, relying mainly on artificial characters drawn largely from the sorus, recognized
about seventy genera only, many of them heterogeneous groups of plants with little
resemblance in structure, habit or natural affinities. John Smith, relying on stem
characters, Presl on variation in venation and habit,Fee, Moore,and others, have recognized
a much greater number of genera, ranging from 150 to 250, or even more. In the very unequal
treatment by Diels in Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Engler & Prantl), some 120 genera
are recognized. A somewhat similar difference prevails in regard to the number of species.
The Synopsis Filicum of Hooker and Baker (1874), supplemented by Baker's New Ferns (1892),
recognizes some 2,700 species. It is the too prevailing tendency in this work (1) to fail to
recognize many valid species which have been described by German and French botanists, and
(2) to mass under one name very diverse groups of species from distant quarters of the world
from 8 to 10 species not infrequently appearing as a single so-called "variable species."
The most recent book dealing with the whole order of ferns, the Index Filicium by Carl
Christensen, recognizes approximately 150 genera and 6,000 species, and this number is
continually increased as the result of further tropical exploration and more careful study.
New forms are constantly coming in from the less-explored parts of the world, and within the
last few years several new species have been described from the United States, including
some from the better-known parts. Of this number some 200 species are in occasional
cultivation in America, but the species that form the bulk of the fern trade do not exceed
two dozen. In Europe several hundred species have long been in cultivation. Most of the
species thrive best in the mountain regions of the tropics, the mountains of Jamaica and
Java having nearly 600 species each, and the Andes also a large number. About 165 species
are native in the temperate United States, representing some thirty-five genera; our native
species are so widely distributed that usually not more than twenty-five to fifty will be
found within the limits of one state, and the common species of the best locality do not
number more than twenty. Recent explorations in southern Florida have discovered in that
state the presence of a considerable number of West Indian species not found elsewhere in
the United States.

The ferns are commonly classified as part of a group of spore-bearing plants, with vascular
(woody) tissue in stem and leaves; this group is technically known as the Pteridophytes, and
is ordinarily divided into three orders; viz., the Equisetales, including the horsetails'
and scouring rushes; the Lycopodiales, including the selaginellas and the club mosses, or
ground pines; and the Filicales, including the true ferns and their nearer allies. The
Lycopodiales and Equi- setales are really not as closely related to ferns as this grouping
would indicate.
It should be noted that neither the family nor the generic limitations are in a settled
condition. The researches of Bower, Lang, Jeffrey, and others have resulted in some changes
of classification which are not included below because they are not complete enough. Their
conclusions are undoubtedly correct but are not at present usable.

The families of the order Filicales may be distinguished as follows:
1. Ophioglossaceae. Adder's-Tongue Ferns. Herbaceous small ferns with the sporangia borne in
spikes or panicles on highly modified divisions of the large fleshy foliage lvs.; prothallium
tuberous, subterranean, without chlorophyll.

2. Marattiaceae. Coarse ferns with large fleshy sporangia on the under surface of the lf.,
arranged in circular or boat-shaped receptacles; prothallium above ground, green.

3. Hymenophyllaceae. Filmy ferns. Sporangia attached to a thread-like receptacle arising in
a cup at the end of the lf.: ring complete, horizontal or oblique.

4. Osmundaceae. Flowering ferns. Coarse swamp ferns developing copious green spores early in
the season: sporangia in panicles at the apex or middle of the lf. or on separate lvs.

5. Schizaeaceae. Upright or climbing ferns with ovate sporangia, which open vertically.

6. Gleicheniaceae. Terrestrial ferns with lvs. of firm texture and usually of indeterminate
growth: sporangia opening vertically, in clusters of 3-6.

7. Ceratopteridaceae. Aquatic ferns with succulent foliage: sporangia very large, scattered,
with a broad ring: lvs. of 2 sorts, the sterile usually floating.

8. Cyatheaceae. Mostly tree ferns with sessile or short-stalked sporangia in conspicuous
receptacles, opening obliquely.

9. Polypodiaceae. Ferns with stalked sporangia, which burst transversely: sori covered with
a membranous indusium or sometimes naked. This family contains three-fourths of all the
ferns.

10. Marsiliaceae. Small plants rooting in mud, the lvs. either quadrifoliate or reduced to
mere filamentous petioles: sporangia borne in oval conceptacles on the leaf-stalks. Often
aquatic, with the leaves floating on the surface of water in pools or lakes.

11. Salviniaceae. Small or minute plants with the aspect of liverworts, floating on the
surface of pools: sporangia in mostly spherical conceptacles.

The literature on the ferns is very extensive, since they have ever been attractive plants
in cultivation. Many of the species have been illustrated in elaborate treatises by Schkuhr,
Kunze, Hooker, Greville, Blume, Fee, Mettenius, Moore, and others. Our native species have
been illustrated in the two quarto volumes of D. C. Eaton, "The Ferns of North America." A
valuable summary of the more common fern species is found in Dr. Christ's "Die Farnkrauter
der Erde" (1897), and a recent structural and morphological treatment is by Sadebeck, in
Engler & Prantl: "Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien." Schneider's "Book of Choice Ferns" is
the most complete treatise on the species under cultivation. A useful American horticultural
manual is Robinson's "Ferns in Their Homes and Ours." An excellent little handbook for the
wild species of this country is Underwood's "Native Ferns and Their Allies."

L. M. Underwood.

R. C. Benedict.
}}
{{dablink|This article is about the family of pteridophyte plants. For the environmental organisation, see [[FERN (NGO)]]. For the letter of the [[Ogham]] alphabet, see [[Fern (letter)]]. }}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Ferns (Pteridophyta)
| fossil_range = [[Early Carboniferous]] - Recent
| image = Polystichum_setiferum0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''[[Polystichum setiferum]]'' showing unrolling young frond
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = '''Pteridophyta'''
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision =
[[Psilotopsida]] 
[[Equisetopsida]] 
[[Marattiopsida]] 
[[Polypodiopsida]]
}}

A '''fern''' is any one of a group of about 20,000 [[species]] of [[plant]]s classified in the phylum or division '''Pteridophyta''', also known as '''Filicophyta'''. The group is also referred to as '''polypodiophyta''', or '''polypodiopsida''' when treated as a subdivision of [[tracheophyta]] (vascular plants). The study of ferns is called '''pteridology'''; one who studies ferns is called a '''pteridologist'''. The term [[pteridophyte]]s has traditionally been used to describe all seedless [[vascular plant]]s so is synonymous with "ferns and [[fern allies]]". This can be confusing given that the fern phylum Pteridophyta is also sometimes referred to as pteridophytes.

A fern is a [[vascular plant]] that differs from the more primitive [[lycophyte]]s in having true [[leaf|leaves]] (megaphylls), and from the more advanced [[seed plant]]s ([[gymnosperm]]s and [[angiosperm]]s) in lacking [[seed]]s. Like all vascular plants, it has a [[biological life cycle|life cycle]], often referred to as [[alternation of generations]], characterised by a [[diploid]] [[sporophyte|sporophytic]] and a [[haploid]] [[gametophyte|gametophytic]] phase. Unlike the gymnosperms and angiosperms, in ferns the gametophyte is a free-living organism. The life cycle of a typical fern is as follows:

# A [[sporophyte]] ([[diploid]]) phase produces [[haploid]] [[spore]]s by [[meiosis]];
# A spore grows by cell division into a [[gametophyte]], which typically consists of a photosynthetic [[prothallus]]
# The gametophyte produces [[gametes]] (often both [[sperm]] and [[Ovum|egg]]s on the same prothallus) by [[mitosis]]
# A mobile, [[flagellum|flagellate]] sperm fertilizes an egg that remains attached to the prothallus
# The fertilized egg is now a diploid [[zygote]] and grows by mitosis into a sporophyte (the typical "fern" plant).

==Fern ecology==
Ferns have a popular image of growing in moist, shady woodland nooks, but the reality is far more complex. Ferns grow in a wide variety of [[habitat]]s, ranging from remote [[mountain]] elevations to dry [[desert]] rock faces to bodies of water to open fields. Ferns in general may be thought of as largely being specialists in marginal habitats, often succeeding in places where various environmental delimiters limit the success of [[flowering plant]]s. On the other hand, some ferns are among the world's most serious weed species, such as the [[bracken]] growing in the British highlands, or the mosquito fern (''[[Azolla]]'') growing in tropical lakes. There are four particular types of habitats that are often key places to find ferns: the afore-mentioned moist, shady [[forest]] cove; the sheltered rock face, especially when sheltered from the full sun; acid [[bog]]s and [[swamp]]s; and tropical [[tree]]s, where many species are [[epiphyte]]s.

Many ferns depend on associations with [[mycorrhizal]] fungi. Many ferns only grow within specific pH ranges; for instance, the climbing fern (''[[Lygodium]]'') of eastern [[North America]] will only grow in moist, intensely [[acid]] soils, while the bulblet bladder fern (''[[Cystopteris]] bulbifera'') with overlapping range is only ever found on [[limestone]]

== Fern structure ==
[[Image:Ferns at melb botanical gardens.jpg|thumb|Ferns at the Royal Melbourne Botanical Gardens]]
[[Image:Ferns02.jpg|thumb|Tree ferns, probably ''Dicksonia antarctica'']]
Like the sporophytes of seed plants, those of ferns consist of:
* [[Plant stem|Stems]]: Most often an underground creeping [[rhizome]], but sometimes an above-ground creeping [[stolon]] (e.g., [[Polypodiaceae]]), or an above-ground erect semi-woody trunk (e.g., [[Cyatheaceae]]) reaching up to 20 m in a few species (e.g., ''Cyathea brownii'' on [[Norfolk Island]] and ''Cyathea medullaris'' in [[New Zealand]]).
* [[Leaf]]: The [[green]], [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] part of the plant. In ferns, it is often referred to as a [[frond]], but this is because of the historical division between people who study ferns and people who study seed plants, rather than because of differences in structure. New leaves typically expand by the unrolling of a tight spiral called a crozier or [[fiddlehead]]. This uncurling of the leaf is termed [[circinate vernation]]. Leaves are divided into two types:
** Trophophyll: A leaf that does not produce spores, instead only producing sugars by photosynthesis. Analogous to the typical green leaves of seed plants.
** [[Sporophyll]]: A leaf that produces spores. These leaves are analogous to the scales of pine cones or to stamens and pistil in gymnosperms and angiosperms, respectively. Unlike the seed plants, however, the sporophylls of ferns are typically not very specialized, looking similar to trophophylls and producing sugars by photosynthesis as the trophophylls do.
* [[Root]]s: The underground non-photosynthetic structures that take up water and nutrients from soil. They are always [[fibrous root system|fibrous]] and are structurally very similar to the roots of seed plants.

The gametophytes of ferns, however, are very different from those of seed plants. They typically consist of:
* Prothallus: A green, photosynthetic structure that is one cell thick, usually heart- or kidney-shaped, 3-10 mm long and 2-8 mm broad. The thallus produces gametes by means of:
** [[antheridium|Antheridia]]: Small spherical structures that produce [[flagellum|flagellate]] sperm.
** [[archegonium|Archegonia]]: A flask-shaped structure that produces a single egg at the bottom, reached by the sperm by swimming down the neck.
* [[Rhizoid]]s: [[root]]-like structures (not true roots) that consist of single greatly-elongated cells, water and mineral salts are absorbed over the whole structure. Rhizoids anchor the prothallus to the soil.

==Evolution and classification==
Ferns first appear in the fossil record in the early-[[Carboniferous]] period. By the [[Triassic]], the first evidence of ferns related to several modern families appeared. The "great fern radiation" occurred in the late-[[Cretaceous]], when many modern families of ferns first appeared.

Ferns have traditionally been grouped in the Class Filices, but modern classifications assign them their own division in the plant kingdom, called Pteridophyta.

Traditionally, three discrete groups of plants have been considered ferns: two groups of eusporangiate ferns--families [[Ophioglossaceae]] ([[Ophioglossum|adders-tongues]], [[moonwort]]s, and [[grape-fern]]s) and [[Marattiaceae]]--and the [[sporangium|leptosporangiate]] ferns. The Marattiaceae are a primitive group of tropical ferns with a large, fleshy rhizome, and are now thought to be a sibling taxon to the main group of ferns, the leptosporangiate ferns. Several other groups of plants were considered "[[fern ally|fern allies]]": the [[clubmoss]]es, [[spikemoss]]es, and [[quillwort]]s in the [[Lycopodiophyta]], the [[whisk fern]]s in [[Psilotaceae]], and the [[horsetail]]s in the [[Equisetaceae]]. More recent genetic studies have shown that the Lycopodiophyta are only distantly related to any other [[vascular plant]]s, having radiated evolutionarily at the base of the vascular plant [[clade]], while both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as much "true" ferns as are the Ophioglossoids and Marattiaceae. In fact, the whisk ferns and Ophioglossoids are demonstrably a clade, and the horsetails and Marattiaceae are arguably another clade.

One possible means of treating this situation is to consider only the leptosporangiate ferns as "true" ferns, while considering the other three groups as "fe
rn allies". In practice, numerous classification schemes have been proposed for ferns and fern allies, and there has been little consensus among them. A new classification by Smith et al. (2006) is based on recent molecular systematic studies, in addition to morphological data. This classification divides ferns into four classes:

*Psilotopsida
*Equisetopsida
*Marattiopsida
*Polypodiopsida

The last group includes most plants familiarly known as ferns. Modern research supports older ideas based on morphology that the Osmundaceae diverged early in the evolutionary history of the leptosporangiate ferns; in certain ways this family is intermediate between the eusporangiate ferns and the leptosporangiate ferns.

A more complete classification scheme (with alternative names in brackets) follows:

*Class [[Psilotopsida]]
**Order [[Ophioglossales]]
***Family [[Ophioglossaceae]] (incl. [[Botrychiaceae]], [[Helminthostachyaceae]])
**Order [[Psilotales]]
***Family [[Psilotaceae]] (incl. [[Tmesipteridaceae]])
*Class [[Equisetopsida]] [=Sphenopsida]
**Order [[Equisetales]]
***Family [[Equisetaceae]]
*Class [[Marattiopsida]]
**Order [[Marattiales]]
***Family [[Marattiaceae]] (incl. [[Angiopteridaceae]], [[Christenseniaceae]], [[Danaeaceae]], [[Kaulfussiaceae]])
*Class [[Polypodiopsida]] [=Filicopsida]
**Order [[Osmundales]]
***Family [[Osmundaceae]]
**Order [[Hymenophyllales]]
***Family [[Hymenophyllaceae]] (incl. [[Trichomanaceae]])
**Order [[Gleicheniales]]
***Family [[Gleicheniaceae]] (incl. [[Dicranopteridaceae]], [[Stromatopteridaceae]])
***Family [[Dipteridaceae]] (incl. [[Cheiropleuriaceae]])
***Family [[Matoniaceae]]
**Order [[Schizaeales]]
***Family [[Lygodiaceae]]
***Family [[Anemiaceae]] (incl. [[Mohriaceae]])
***Family [[Schizaeaceae]]
**Order [[Salviniales]]
***Family [[Marsileaceae]] (incl. [[Pilulariaceae]])
***Family [[Salviniaceae]] (incl. [[Azollaceae]])
**Order [[Cyatheales]]
***Family [[Thyrsopteridaceae]]
***Family [[Loxomataceae]]
***Family [[Culcitaceae]]
***Family [[Plagiogyriaceae]]
***Family [[Cibotiaceae]]
***Family [[Cyatheaceae]] (incl. [[Alsophilaceae]], [[Hymenophyllopsidaceae]])
***Family [[Dicksoniaceae]] (incl. [[Lophosoriaceae]])
***Family [[Metaxyaceae]]
**Order [[Polypodiales]]
***Family [[Lindsaeaceae]] (incl. [[Cystodiaceae]], [[Lonchitidaceae]])
***Family [[Saccolomataceae]]
***Family [[Dennstaedtiaceae]] (incl. [[Hypolepidaceae]], [[Monachosoraceae]], [[Pteridiaceae]])
***Family [[Pteridaceae]] (incl. [[Acrostichaceae]], [[Actiniopteridaceae]], [[Adiantaceae]], [[Anopteraceae]], [[Antrophyaceae]], [[Ceratopteridaceae]], [[Cheilanthaceae]], [[Cryptogrammaceae]], [[Hemionitidaceae]], [[Negripteridaceae]], [[Parkeriaceae]], [[Platyzomataceae]], [[Sinopteridaceae]], [[Taenitidaceae]], [[Vittariaceae]])
***Family [[Aspleniaceae]]
***Family [[Thelypteridaceae]]
***Family [[Woodsiaceae]] (incl. [[Athyriaceae]], [[Cystopteridaceae]])
***Family [[Blechnaceae]] (incl. [[Stenochlaenaceae]])
***Family [[Onocleaceae]]
***Family [[Dryopteridaceae]] (incl. [[Aspidiaceae]], [[Bolbitidaceae]], [[Elaphoglossaceae]], [[Hypodematiaceae]], [[Peranemataceae]])
***Family [[Lomariopsidaceae]] (incl. [[Nephrolepidaceae]])
***Family [[Tectariaceae]]
***Family [[Oleandraceae]]
***Family [[Davalliaceae]]
***Family [[Polypodiaceae]] (incl. [[Drynariaceae]], [[Grammitidaceae]], [[Gymnogrammitidaceae]], [[Loxogrammaceae]], [[Platyceriaceae]], [[Pleurisoriopsidaceae]])

==Economic uses==
Ferns are not as important economically as seed plants but have considerable importance. Ferns of the genus ''[[mosquito fern|Azolla]]'' are very small, floating plants that do not look like ferns. Called [[mosquito fern]], they are used as a biological fertilizer in the rice paddies of southeast Asia, taking advantage of their ability to [[nitrogen fixation|fix nitrogen]] from the air into compounds that can then be used by other plants. A great many ferns are grown in [[horticulture]] as landscape plants, for [[greenery|cut foliage]] and as [[houseplant]]s, especially the [[Boston fern]] (''Nephrolepis exaltata''). Several ferns are noxio
us [[weed]]s or [[invasive species]], including Japanese climbing fern (''[[Lygodium]] japonicum''), mosquito fern and [[sensitive fern]] (''Onoclea sensibilis''). Giant water fern (''[[Salvinia molesta]]'') is one of the world's worst aquatic weeds. The important fossil fuel [[coal]] consists of the remains of primitive plants, including ferns.

Other ferns with some economic significance include:
*''[[Dryopteris filix-mas]]'' (male fern), used as a [[vermifuge]]
*''[[Rumohra adiantoides]]'' (floral fern), extensively used in the [[floristry|florist]] trade
*''[[Osmunda|Osmunda regalis]]'' (royal fern) and ''[[Osmunda|Osmunda cinnamomea]]'' (cinnamon fern), the root fiber being used horticulturally; the fiddleheads of ''O. cinnamomea'' are also used as a cooked vegetable
*''[[Matteuccia struthiopteris]]'' (ostrich fern), the fiddleheads used as a cooked vegetable in North America
*''[[Pteridium aquilinum]]'' (bracken), the fiddleheads used as a cooked vegetable in Japan and are believed to be responsible for the high rate of stomach cancer in Japan
*''[[Diplazium esculentum]]'' (vegetable fern), a source of food for some native societies
*''[[Pteris|Pteris vittata]]'' (brake fern), used to absorb [[arsenic]] from the soil
*''Polypodium glycyrrhiza'' (licorice fern), roots chewed for their pleasant flavor
*[[Tree fern]]s, used as building material in some tropical areas
*[[Bracken]] fern, often poisons cattle and horses
*''[[Cyathea cooperi]]'' (Australian tree fern), an important invasive species in Hawaii
*''[[Dryopteris filix-mas]]'', this fern accidentally sprouting in a bottle resulted in Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward's 1829 invention of the terrarium or [[Wardian case]]
*[[Parkeriaceae|''Ceratopteris'']] ''richardii'', a model plant for teaching and research, often called C-fern

==Cultural connotations==
In [[Slavic folklore]], ferns are believed to bloom once a year, during the [[Ivan Kupala]] night. Although it's exceedingly difficult to find, anyone who takes a look of a fern-flower will be happy and rich for the rest of his life. Similarly in [[Finland]], the tradition holds that one who finds the [[seed]] of a fern in bloom on [[Midsummer]] night, will by the possession of it be able to travel under a glamour of invisibility and shall be guided to the locations where eternally blazing [[Will o' the wisp]]s mark the spot of hidden [[treasure]] caches.

==Misunderstood names==
Several non-fern plants are called "ferns" and are sometimes popularly believed to be ferns in error. These include:
*"Asparagus fern" - This may apply to one of several species of the [[monocotyledon|monocot]] genus ''[[Asparagus]]'', which are flowering plants. A better name would be "fern asparagus".
*"Sweetfern" - This is a shrub of the genus ''[[Comptonia]]''.
*"[[Air fern]]" - This is an unrelated aquatic animal that is related to a coral; it is harvested, dried, dyed green, then sold as plant that can "live on air". It looks like a fern but is actually a skeleton.

In addition, the book ''[[Where the Red Fern Grows]]'' has elicited many questions about the mythical "red fern" named in the book. There is no such known plant, although there has been speculation that the Oblique grape-fern, ''[[Sceptridium|Sceptridium dissectum]]'', could be referred to here, because it is known to appear on disturbed sites and its fronds may redden over the winter.

== Gallery ==
{{Commonscat|Pteridophyta}}
<gallery>
Image:Fern.jpg|Fern leaf, probably ''Blechnum nudum''
Image:Tree Fern.jpg|A tree fern unrolling a new frond
Image:Fern02.jpg|Tree fern, probably ''Dicksonia antarctica''
Image:Ferns.jpg|Tree ferns, probably ''Dicksonia antarctica''
Image:Haeckel Filicinae 92.jpg|"Filicinae" from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''[[Kunstformen der Natur]]'', 1904
Image:Oaxaca fern.jpg|Unidentified tree fern in [[Oaxaca (state)|Oaxaca]]
Image:Tree Fern Spores.jpg|Tree Fern Spores [[San Diego, CA]]
Image:Fern-leaf-oliv.jpg|Leaf of fern
Image:Fern leaves.jpg|Unidentified fern with spores showing in [[Rotorua]], [[New Zealand|NZ]].
Image:CowellFerns.JPG|Ferns in a natural
[[Sequoia|Coast Redwood]] undergrowth setting [[Santa Cruz, CA]].
</gallery>

{{-}}

==References==
* Pryer, Kathleen M., Harald Schneider, Alan R. Smith, Raymond Cranfill, Paul G. Wolf, Jeffrey S. Hunt and Sedonia D. Sipes. 2001. Horsetails and ferns are a monophyletic group and the closest living relatives to seed plants. ''Nature'' 409: 618-622 (abstract [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v409/n6820/abs/409618a0.html here]).
* Pryer, Kathleen M., Eric Schuettpelz, Paul G. Wolf, Harald Schneider, Alan R. Smith and Raymond Cranfill. 2004. Phylogeny and evolution of ferns (monilophytes) with a focus on the early leptosporangiate divergences. ''American Journal of Botany'' 91:1582-1598 (online abstract [http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/91/10/1582 here]).
* Moran, Robbin C. (2004). ''A Natural History of Ferns''. Portland, OR: Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-667-1.
* Lord, Thomas R. (2006). ''Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania''. Indiana, PA: Pinelands Press. [http://www.paferns.com]
* Smith, A. R., K. M. Pryer, E. Schuettpelz, P. Korall, H. Schneider & P. G. Wolf. 2006. A classification for extant ferns. ''Taxon'' 55(3):705–731.

==See also==
* [[Fern spike]]

==External links==
* [http://ontarioferns.com Ontario Ferns]
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Filicopsida&contgroup=Embryophytes Tree of Life Web Project: Filicopsida]
* A classification of the [http://www.anbg.gov.au/fern/taxa/classification.html ferns and their allies]
* [http://www.jaknouse.athens.oh.us/ferns/bookfern.html A fern book bibliography]
* [http://www1.akira.ne.jp/~unzen/pteridophyta.html Register of fossil Pteridophyta]
* [http://delta-intkey.com/britfe/ L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (2004 onwards). The Ferns (Filicopsida) of the British Isles.]
* [http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/pages/non-seed-plants.htm Non-seed plant images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu]

[[Category:Pteridophyta| ]]
[[Category:Botany]]
[[Category:Gardening]]
[[Category:Horticulture]]

Fenugreek

2009-06-18T14:15:35Z

Pradeep:

{{Inc|
Fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-Graecum, literally Greek hay). An annual legume indigenous to
western Asia, cultivated for human food, forage, and for medicinal qualities; widely
naturalized in Mediterranean countries; little grown in America.

Fenugreek is an erect little-branched plant with 3- foliolate leaves. The seeds are 1 or 2
lines long, brownish yellow and marked with an oblique furrow half their length. They emit a
peculiar odor, and contain starch, mucilage, a bitter extractive, a yellow coloring matter,
and 6 per cent of fixed and volatile oils. As human food they are used in Egypt, mixed with
wheat flour, to make bread; in India, with other condiments, to make curry powder; in
Greece, either boiled or raw, as an addition to honey; in many oriental countries, to give
plumpness to the female human form. The plant is used as an esculent in Hindostan; as an
early fodder in Egypt, Algiers, France, and other countries bordering the Mediterranean.
Formerly the seed was valued in medicine; now it is employed only in the preparation of
emollient cataplasms, enemata, ointments and plasters, never internally. In veterinary
practice it is still esteemed for poultices, condition powders, as a vehicle for drugs, and
to diminish the nauseating and griping effects of purgatives. It is commonly used by
hostlers to produce glossy coats upon their horses and to give a temporary fire and vigor;
by stockmen to excite thirst and digestion in fattening animals; by manufacturers of patent
stock foods as a flavoring ingredient.

Fenugreek does not succeed on clays, sands, wet or sour soils. It yields most seed upon
well-drained loams of medium texture and of moderate fertility; most fodder upon rich lands.
For seed-production, potash and phosphoric acid should be applied; for forage, nitrogenous
manures. Deep plowing and thorough harrowing are essential. Ten to twenty pounds of seed
should be used broadcast, or seven to ten pounds in drills 18 inches apart. Thinning when
the plants are 2 or 3 inches tall, and clean culture throughout theseason until blossoming
time, are necessary for a seed crop. The crop may be mown, dried andthreshed four or five
months after seeding. An average yield should be about 950 pounds an acre. As a green
manure, fenugreek is inferior to the clovers, vetches and other popular green manures of
this country. It possesses the power of obtaining nitrogen from the air by means of
root-tubercles.For description of the plant, see Trigonella. M. G. Kains.
}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Fenugreek
| image = Illustration_Trigonella_foenum-graecum0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Fabales]]
| familia = [[Fabaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Trigonella]]''
| species = '''''T. foenum-graecum'''''
| binomial = ''Trigonella foenum-graecum''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
'''Fenugreek''' (''Trigonella foenum-graecum'') belongs to the family Fabaceae. Fenugreek is used both as a [[herb]] (the leaves) and as a [[spice]] (the [[fenugreek seed|seed]]). It is cultivated worldwide as a semi-arid crop.

The name fenugreek or ''foenum-graecum'' is from [[Latin]] for "Greek hay". Zohary and Hopf note that it is not yet certain which wild strain of the genus ''Trigonella'' gave rise to the domesticated fenugreek but believe it was brought into cultivation in the Near East. Charred fenugreek seeds have been recovered from [[Tell Halal]], [[Iraq]], ([[radiocarbon dating]] to 4000 BC) and Bronze Age levels of [[Lachish]], as well as desiccated seeds from the tomb of [[Tutankhamen]].<ref>Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, ''Domestication of plants in the Old World'', third edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 122.</ref> [[Cato the Elder]] lists fenugreek with [[clover]] and [[vetch]] as crops grown to feed cattle (''[[De Agri Cultura]]'', 27).

The rhombic yellow to amber colored fenugreek seed, commonly called ''Methi'', is frequently used in the preparation of pickles, curry powders and pastes, and is often encountered in the [[cuisine]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The young [[leaf|leaves]] and [[sprouting|sprouts]] of fenugreek are eaten as [[greens (vegetable)|greens]], and the fresh or dried leaves are used to flavor other dishes. The dried leaves (called ''kasuri methi'') have a bitter taste and a strong characteristic smell.

In [[India]], fenugreek seeds are mixed with [[yogurt]] and used as a conditioner for hair. It is also one of the ingredients in the making of ''[[khakhra]]'', a type of bread. It is used in [[injera]]/taita, a type of bread unique to [[Cuisine of Ethiopia|Ethiopian]] and [[Cuisine of Eritrea|Eritrean cuisine]]. The word for fenugreek in [[Amharic language|Amharic]] is ''abesh'', and the seed is reportedly also often used in [[Ethiopia]] as a natural herbal medicine in the treatment of [[diabetes]]. It is also sometimes used as an ingredient in the production of clarified butter (Amharic: ''qibé'', Ethiopian and Eritrean [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]: ''tesme''), which is similar to Indian ''[[ghee]]''. In Turkey, fenugreek gives its name, ''çemen'', to a hot paste used in ''[[pastirma]]''. In [[Yemen]] it is the main condiment and an ingredient added to the national dish called ''[[saltah]]''. The [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''hulba'' for the seed resembles its [[Mandarin Chinese]] counterpart ''hu lu ba''. Fenugreek, or ''Şambélilé'' in [[Persian language|Persian]], is also one of four herbs used for the [[Iran]]ian [[recipe]] ''[[Ghormeh Sabzi]]''.

In [[Egypt]], fenugreek seeds are prepared as tea.

Fenugreek seeds are a rich source of the [[polysaccharide]] [[galactomannan]]. They are also a source of saponins such as diosgenin, yamogenin, gitogenin, tigogenin, and neotigogens. Other bioactive constituents of fenugreek include mucilage, volatile oils, and alkaloids such as choline and trigonelline.

A side effect of consuming even small amounts of fenugreek (even as just an infusion in water) is a [[maple syrup]] or [[curry]] [[Odor|smell]] in the eater's [[sweating|sweat]] and [[urine]], which is caused by the potent [[aroma compound]] [[sotolone]]. Fenugreek is frequently used in the production of [[flavoring]] for artificial syrups. The taste of toasted fenugreek is additionally based on [[Substitution (chemistry)|substituted]] [[pyrazine]]s, as is [[cumin]]. By itself, it has a somewhat [[Bitter (taste)|bitter]] taste.

[[Image:Fenugreek-methi-seeds.jpg|left|thumb|Dried fenugreek seed]]
Fenugreek is mainly used as digestive aid.
Fenugreek seed is widely used as a [[galactagogue]] (milk producing agent) by nursing mothers to increase inadequate [[breast milk]] supply. It can be found in capsule form in many health food stores.<ref>[http://www.breastfeeding.com/all_about/all_about_fenugreek.html http://www.breastfeeding.com/all_about/all_about_fenugreek.html]</ref>

Supplements of fenugreek seeds were shown to lower [[serum cholesterol]], [[triglyceride]], and low-density [[lipoprotein]] in human patients and experimental models of [[hypercholesterolemia]] and [[hypertriglyceridemia]] (Basch et al., 2003). Several human intervention trials demonstrated that the antidiabetic effects of fenugreek seeds ameliorate most metabolic symptoms associated with [[Type 1 diabetes|type-1]] and [[Type 2 diabetes|type-2]] diabetes in both humans and relevant animal models (Basch et al., 2003; Srinivas, 2005). Fenugreek is currently available commercially in encapsulated forms and is being prescribed as dietary supplements for the control of hypercholesterolemia and diabetes by practitioners of complementary and alternative medicine.

In recent research, fenugreek seeds were shown to protect against experimental cancers of the [[breast]] (Amin et al., 2005) and [[Colon (anatomy)|colon]] (Raju et al., 2006). The [[hepatoprotective]] properties of fenugreek seeds have also been reported in experimental models (Raju and Bird, 2006; Kaviarasan et al., 2006; Thirunavukarrasu et al., 2003).[[Image:Fenugreek_seeds.jpg|right|thumb|Fenugreek seeds close-up]]

{{Herbs & spices}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Trig_foe.html?noframes Gernot Katzer's spice dictionary - Fenugreek]
*[http://www.farhangsara.com/ghormeh-sabzi.html Ghormeh Sabzi, an Iranian recipe using fenugreek leaves]
*[http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/11570.cfm Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center - About Herbs, Botanicals & Other Products]
*[http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/fenugree.html Encyclopedia of Spices]

==References==
* {{cite journal | author=A. Amin ''et al.'' | title=Chemopreventive activities of Trigonella foenum graecum (Fenugreek) against breast cancer | journal=Cell Biol Int | year=2005 | volume=29 | issue=8 | pages= 687-94}}
* {{cite journal | author=E. Basch ''et al.'' | title=Therapeutic applications of fenugreek | journal=Altern Med Rev | year=2003 | volume=8 | issue=1 | pages= 20-27}}
* {{cite journal | author=S. Kaviarasan ''et al.'' | title=Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) seed extract prevents ethanol-induced toxicity and apoptosis in Chang liver cells | journal=Alcohol Alcohol | year=2006 | volume=41 | issue=3 | pages= 267-273}}
* {{cite journal | author=J. Raju and R.P. Bird ''et al.'' | title=Alleviation of hepatic steatosis accompanied by modulation of plasma and liver TNF-alpha levels by Trigonella foenum graecum (fenugreek) seeds in Zucker obese (fa/fa) rats | journal=International Journal of Obesity | year=2006 | volume=30 | issue=8 | pages= 1298-1307}}
* {{cite journal | author=J. Raju ''et al.'' | title=Diosgenin, a steroid saponin of Trigonella foenum graecum (Fenugreek), inhibits azoxymethane-induced aberrant crypt foci formation in F344 rats and induces apoptosis in HT-29 human colon cancer cells | journal=Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev | year=2004 | volume=13 | issue=8 | pages= 1392-1398}}
* {{cite journal | author=K. Srinivasan ''et al.'' | title=Plant foods in the management of diabetes mellitus: spices as beneficial antidiabetic food adjuncts | journal=International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition | year=2005 | volume=56 | issue=6 | pages= 399-414}}
* {{cite journal | author=V. Thirunavukkarasu ''et al.'' | title=Protective effect of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) seeds in experimental ethanol toxicity | journal=Phytother Res | year=2003 | volume=17 | issue=7 | pages= 737-743}}

==Footnotes==
<references/>

[[Category:Faboideae]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[category:Edible legumes]]
[[Category:Indian ingredients]]
[[Category: Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Iraqi cuisine]]

Fennel

2009-06-18T14:12:51Z

Pradeep:

{{Inc|
Fennel. Species of Foeniculum (Umbelliferae). annuals or treated as such, used as salad or
condimentai herbs. Native of southern Europe. The common fennel (F. officinale, Linn.) is
grown mostly for its young leaves, which are used in flavoring, and also for its aromatic
seeds. Leaves sometimes eaten raw. Sow seeds in late fall to ensure early germination in
spring, or sow in early spring. In any good soil, the plant comes to maturity quickly. This
plant has become in California one of the most widely naturalized European weeds. It is a
pest in pastures, said at times to attain 12 or 15 feet.

The Florence or sweet fennel is F. dulce, DC. The bases of the crowded leaf-stalks are much
thickened, making a bulb-like enlargement above the ground. This thickened base has an oval
form in cross-section. Earthing-up blanches these thickened leaf-bases, and after boiling
they are fit for eating. A good fennel bottom may be 3 or 4 inches high. This is an Italian
vegetable, but is in the American trade. Easily cultivated annual; matures quickly. Sow in
spring, and later for succession.

Giant fennel is cultivated for ornament, and is described under Ferula. Fennel-flower is a
name of Nigella. L. H. B.
}}
{{for|Giant Fennel (''Ferula communis'')|Ferula}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Fennel
| image = Foeniculum vulgare.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Fennel in flower
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = [[Apiaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Foeniculum]]''
| species = '''''F. vulgare'''''
| binomial = ''Foeniculum vulgare''
| binomial_authority = [[Philip Miller|Mill.]]
}}

'''Fennel''' (''Foeniculum vulgare'') is a [[species]] in the [[genus]] ''[[Foeniculum]]'' (treated as the sole species in the genus by most [[botanist]]s), native to the [[Mediterranean region]] and southwestern [[Asia]], from [[Morocco]] and [[Portugal]] east to [[Pakistan]], and north to southern [[France]] and [[Bulgaria]]. It is a member of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Apiaceae]], formerly the Umbelliferae.<ref name=flora>''Flora Europaea'': [http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Foeniculum+&SPECIES_XREF=vulgare&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK= ''Foeniculum vulgare'']</ref><ref name=grin>Germplasm Resources Information Network: [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?300219 ''Foeniculum vulgare'']</ref>

It is a highly aromatic [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]], erect, glaucous green, and grows to 2.5 m tall, with hollow stems. The [[leaf|leaves]] grow up to 40 cm long; they are finely dissected, with the ultimate segments filiform, about 0.5 mm wide. The [[flower]]s are produced in terminal compound [[umbel]]s 5–15 cm wide, each umbel section with 20–50 tiny yellow flowers on short pedicels. The [[fruit]] is a dry [[seed]] from 4–10 mm long, half as wide or less, and grooved.<ref name=blamey>Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). ''Flora of Britain and Northern Europe''. ISBN 0-340-40170-2</ref>

Fennel is used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including the [[Mouse Moth]] and the [[Anise Swallowtail]].

==Cultivation and uses==
Fennel is widely cultivated, both in its native range and elsewhere, for its edible, strongly-flavoured leaves and seeds. The flavour is similar to that of [[anise]] and [[star anise]], though usually not so strong.<ref name=katzer>Katzer's Spice Pages: [http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Foen_vul.html?noframes Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'' Mill.)]</ref>

The '''Florence fennel''' (''Foeniculum vulgare'' Azoricum Group; [[synonymy|syn.]] ''F. vulgare'' var. ''azoricum'') is a [[Cultivar Group]] with inflated leaf bases which form a [[bulb]]-like structure. It is of cultivated origin,<ref name=grin/> and has a mild anise-like flavour, but is more aromatic and sweeter. Its flavour comes from [[anethole]], an aromatic compound also found in [[anise]] and [[star anise]]. Florence fennel plants are smaller than the wild type and have inflated leaf bases which are eaten as a [[vegetable]], both raw and cooked. There are several [[cultivar]]s of Florence fennel, which is also known by several other names, notably the [[Italian language|Italian]] name ''finocchio''. In North American supermarkets, it is often mislabelled as "anise".

Fennel has become [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] along roadsides, in pastures, and in other open sites in many regions, including northern Europe, the [[United States]], southern [[Canada]] and in much of Asia and [[Australia]]. It propagates well by seed, and is considered an [[invasive species]] and a [[weed]] in Australia and the United States<ref>http://www.co.thurston.wa.us/tcweeds/weeds/fennel.htm</ref> (see [[Santa Cruz Island]]).

Florence fennel was one of the three main herbs used in the preparation of [[Absinthe]], an alcoholic mixture which originated as a medicinal elixir in Switzerland and became, by the late 1800s, a popular drink believed by many to have psychoactive properties beyond those found in other alcoholic beverages. Due to these beliefs, Absinthe was banned in most countries by the 1940s, but a recent relaxation of laws governing its production, importation and sale has caused a moderate resurgence in consumption. Many modern preparations marketed under the name "Absinthe" do not make use of fennel as did the traditional recipes{{Fact|date=June 2007}}.

===Culinary uses===
[[Image:Koeh-148.jpg|right|thumb|Fennel, from Koehler's ''Medicinal-plants'' (1887)]]
[[Image:Fennel seed.jpg|left|thumb|Fennel seeds]]
The bulb, foliage, and seeds of the fennel plant are widely used in many of the [[cookery|culinary]] traditions of the world. Fennel pollen is the most potent form of fennel, but it is exceedingly expensive{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. Dried fennel seed is an aromatic, anise-flavoured [[spice]]; they are brown or green in colour when fresh, and slowly turn a dull grey as the seed ages. For cooking, green seeds are optimal.<ref name=katzer/>

Fennel seeds are sometimes confused with [[anise]]ed, which is very similar in taste and appearance, though smaller. In [[Demographics of India|India]], it is common to chew fennel seed (or ''saunf'') as a mouth-freshener. Fennel is also used as a flavouring in some natural [[toothpaste]]s. Some people employ it as a [[diuretic]]; while others have used it to improve the milk supply of [[breastfeeding]] mothers, it has shown neurotoxicity in certain cases where the mother ingested it as an herbal tea to enhance her breast milk<ref>Rosti, L. A. Nardini, M. Bettinelli, and D. Rosti. Toxic effects of a herbal tea mixture in two newborns. ''Acta Paediatrica''. Vol. 83, 1994:683</ref>.

Many cultures in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the [[Middle East]] incorporate fennel seed into their culinary traditions. It is an essential ingredient in the [[Bengali cuisine|Bengali]]/[[Oriya cuisine|Oriya]] spice mixture [[panch phoron]] and in Chinese [[five-spice powder]]s. It is known as ''saunf'' or ''mauti saunf'' in [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]], ''mouri'' in [[Bengali language|Bengali]], and ''shombu'' or ''peruncheeragam'' in [[Tamil language]]. In the west, fennel seed is a very common ingredient in Italian sausages and northern European rye breads.

Many [[egg (food)|egg]], [[fish]], and other dishes employ fresh or dried fennel leaves. Florence fennel is a key ingredient in some [[Italy|Italian]] and [[Germany|German]] [[salad]]s, often tossed with [[chicory]] and [[avocado]], or it can be [[Braising|braised]] and served as a warm side dish. It may be [[Blanching|blanched]] and/or [[Marination|marinated]], or cooked in [[risotto]]. In all cases, the leaves lend their characteristically mild, anise-like flavour.

===Medical uses===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
[[Essential oil]] of sweet Fennel is included in some [[pharmacopoeia]]s. It is traditionally used in [[medicine]] to treat chills and stomach problems ([[carminative]], antimicrobal action and so on).

Fennel leaves can be boiled, the steam inhaled to relieve [[croup]], [[asthma]], and [[bronchitis]].

Fennel contains [[Anethole]], an antispasmatic, alongside other pharmacologically active substances.

Fennel essential oil is used in [[soap]]s, and some [[perfume]]s.

==Etymology and history==
[[Image:Wild fennel flowers.jpg|thumb|[[Close-up]] of wild fennel flowers]]
[[Etymology|Etymologically]], the word fennel developed from [[Middle English]] ''fenel, fenyl''; [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] ''fenol, finol'', from [[Latin]] ''feniculum, foeniculum'', diminutive of ''fenum, foenum'', "hay". The actual Latin word for the plant was ''[[ferula]]'', which is now used as the genus name of a related plant.

In [[Ancient Greek]], fennel was called ''marathon'' (μάραθον), and is attested in [[Linear B]] tablets as ''ma-ra-tu-wo''. [[John Chadwick]] notes that this word is the origin of the placename [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]] (meaning ''place of fennel''), site of the [[Battle of Marathon]] in [[490 BC]]; however, Chadwick wryly notes that he has "not seen any fennel growing there now".<ref>John Chadwick, ''The Mycenaean World'' (Cambridge: University Press, 1976), p. 120</ref> In [[Greek mythology]], [[Prometheus]] used the stalk of a fennel plant to steal fire from the gods.

In [[Middle Ages|medieval]] times fennel was used in conjunction with [[St John's wort]] to keep away [[witchcraft]] and other evil things. This practice may have originated from fennel's use as an [[insect repellent]].

Fennel is thought to be one of the nine [[herb]]s held sacred by the [[Anglo-Saxons]]. The other eight are not entirely certain, but were probably [[Artemisia vulgaris|mugwort]] (''Artemisia vulgaris''), [[Plantago major|greater plantain]] (''Plantago major''), [[watercress]] (''Nasturtium officinale''), [[chamomile|wild chamomile]] (''Matricaria recutita''), [[stinging nettle]] (''Urtica dioica''), [[Malus|crab apple]] (''Malus sylvestris''), [[chervil]] (''Anthriscus cerefolium''), and [[Viper's Bugloss|viper's bugloss]] (''Echium vulgare'').

==References==
{{Commons|Foeniculum vulgare}}
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://whfoods.org/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=23 Fennel in nutrition, health, cooking]

{{Herbs & spices}}

[[Category:Apiaceae]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Absinthe]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]

Fendlera

2009-06-18T14:10:26Z

Pradeep:

{{Inc|
Fendlera (after Augustus Fendler, a German naturalist, botanical explorer of New Mexico). Saxi- fragaceae. Ornamental woody plant grown for its handsome white flowers.

Deciduous shrub: lvs. opposite, short-pctioled, entire, 3-nerved: fls. solitary or rarely 2-3 at the end of short lateral branchlets; calyx-lobes and petals 4; stamens 8; ovary almost superior: fr. a 4-celled, dehiscent caps., with flat, oblong seeds.Two species from Texas to Mex. Allied to philadelphus, but differing in its 8 stamens and superior ovary. They are graceful ornamental shrubs with small, grayish foliage, covered in June along the slender, arching brancheswith graceful white fls., resembling in shape a Maltese cross. Hardy in New England, and growing best in a well-drained, sandy or peaty soil and sunny position. A very handsome and graceful plant for sunny rockeries or rocky slopes. Prop, by seeds or by greenwood cuttings under glass.

Fendlera rupicola, Engelm. & Gray.To 4 ft.: lvs. linear-lanceolate or linear-oblong, 3-nerved, revolute at the margin, grayish tomentose beneath, 1/2 - 1 in. long: fls. milky white, 1 in. across; petals rhombic ovate, with distinct claw, spreading; stamens erect.

Alfred Rehder.
}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Fendlera''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Cornales]]
| familia = [[Hydrangeaceae]]
| genus = '''''Fendlera'''''
| genus_authority = [[George Engelmann|Engelm.]] & [[Samuel Frederick Gray|Gray]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''Fendlera rigida'' - Stiff Fendlerbush 
''Fendlera rupicola'' - Cliff Fendlerbush 
''Fendlera wrightii'' - Wright Fendlerbush
}}

'''''Fendlera''''' is a [[genus]] of [[shrub]]s in the [[Hydrangeaceae]]. They are most commonly known as '''Fendlerbush'''. The name Fendlerbush is also used for the closely related genus ''[[Fendlerella]]''.

Felicia

2009-06-18T14:09:17Z

Pradeep:

Felicia

2009-06-18T14:04:15Z

Pradeep:

{{Inc|
Felicia (for Herr Felix, a German official). Compositae. Herbs or sub-shrubs, grown under glass or as pot specimens.

Leaves alternate, entire or dentate: heads usually long-peduncled, the corolla blue or white, the disk yellow. Much like Aster, from which it differs in having pappus bristles in one series, and in other technical characters.—Forty to 50 species in Afr.
}}
__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Felicia (for Herr Felix, a German official). Compositae. Herbs or sub-shrubs, grown under glass or as pot specimens.
Leaves alternate, entire or dentate: heads usually long-peduncled, the corolla blue or white, the disk yellow. Much like Aster, from which it differs in having pappus bristles in one series, and in other technical characters.—Forty to 50 species in Afr.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Feijoa

2009-06-18T14:03:24Z

Pradeep:

{{Inc|
Feijoa. The Feijoa, or Pineapple Guava (Feijoa Sellowiana, Berg, family Myrtaceae) is indigenous to western Paraguay, southern Brazil, Uruguay, and parts of Argentina, where it is common in the forests, and the fruit is highly esteemed by the natives though not cultivated. It was introduced to southern Europe in 1890, and is grown along the Riviera, both in France and Italy. From the former country it was introduced to the United States about 1900, and is becoming widely planted in California. Its distribution in other countries is very limited.

Feijoa is of 2 species. It is the Orthostemon of Berg, not of Robert Brown. F. obovata, Berg (o. obovatus, Berg), is considered by Niedenzu to be a variety of F. Sellowiana. It is a white-tomentose shrub, with bisexual showy fls.; petals 4, spreading; stamens numerous, in many series, colored; ovary 4-celled, bearing a thickish style; pedicels 1-fld., at the ends of the branches or becoming lateral. The other species is F. Schenckiana, Kiaersk., of Brazil, described first in 1891. The genus is closely allied to psidium. but is distinguished by the albuminous seeds and stamens suberect in the bud.

The plant grows to an ultimate height of 15 feet. Its leaves are similar in form and appearance to those of the olive, but larger, the upper surface glossy green, and lower surface silvery gray, forming a contrast that makes the shrub effectively ornamental. This effect is much heightened by its flowers which are produced in late spring and are 11/2 inches in diameter, composed of four cupped petals, white outside and purplish crimson within, surmounted by a tuft of crimson stamens 1 inch long. The oval or oblong fruits, 2 inches in length and 1 1/2 inches in thickness, ripen in autumn and early winter. The skin is dull green, with sometimes a touch of crimson on the cheek; it incloses a layer of whitish, granular flesh, which surrounds a quantity of translucent, melting pulp, containing twenty to thirty seeds. The flavor bears a pronounced resemblance to that of the pineapple, this being enhanced by the fact that the seeds are so small that they cannot be felt in the mouth. While commonly eaten fresh, the fruit may be cooked in several ways, crystallized, or made into jam or jelly.

The feijoa does not seem to thrive under strictly tropical conditions, preferring a climate such as that of southern California or the Riviera, free from excessive humidity, and cool-at least part of the year. In France, the plants have passed uninjured through temperatures of 12° F. A good loam, rich in humus, is the ideal soil for the feijoa. It has been successfully grown on heavy clay, by working in a quantity of light material, but it does not do well on light or sandy soils. The situation seems to be of little importance; provided the land is well drained. While the plant is notably drought-resistant, for best results in growth and fruiting a liberal supply of water is necessary. During the dry season, irrigations should be as frequent as for citrous trees. Fertilizers must be applied with caution, or they will stimulate growth at the expense of fruit. A small quantity of bone-meal, or other fertilizer not too rich in nitrogen, may be advantageously applied each year, while well-rotted manure will supply the much-needed humus, if it is lacking in the soil. The plants should be set 15 or 18 feet apart, and require very little pruning. Seedlings usually come into bearing at three to five years; grafted or layered plants will sometimes bear the second year.

In some instances, seedling feijoas fruit sparingly or not at all, either through the failure of the flowers to be properly fertilized or because of unfavorable soil or surroundings. Although isolated plants are often productive, it has been suggested that the feijoa is sometimes self sterile, and two or more bushes should be planted together to permit of cross-pollination. The difficulty can probably be obviated, in a measure at least, by propagating asexually from strains of known productiveness.

The fruits fall when mature, and must be laid in a cool place until they are in condition for eating, which can be detected by a slight softening, and also by the odor,—a fragrance most delightful. If picked before fully mature and ready to fall, the fruits lack much of the delicate flavor of a perfectly ripened specimen. Very little care is required in packing, and the fruits can be shipped long distances without difficulty. They spoil quickly in a hot, humid atmosphere, but if stored in a cool place they can be kept for a month or more in perfect condition.

The shrub is attacked by a very few insects, the only one noted in either California or southern Europe being the black scale (Saissetm oleae), which rarely requires combative measures. No fungus diseases have been observed on mature plants.

Propagation is usually by seed, but some vegetative means must be used to perpetuate named varieties. Fruits for seed should be selected with a view to desirability in every character, as in precocity of bearing and productiveness of the parent. While the feijoa does not come absolutely true from seed, fairly good results are usually secured from selected seeds.

One of the best mediums for germinating the seeds is a mixture of silver-sand and well-rotted redwood sawdust. This gives an almost sterile medium, in which there is little danger of damping-off, to which fungus the young plants are very susceptible. With care in watering, however, any light porous soil, not too rich in humus, may be used. Sow the seeds in pans or flats, covering them to the depth of 1/4 inch. Germination will usually take place within three weeks. A glasshouse is not necessary, but the flats containing the seeds should be kept in a frame with lath or slat covering to provide partial shade. The seeds will retain their vitality a year or more, if kept dry. As soon as the young plants have made their second leaves they should be pricked off into 2-inch pots; after attaining a height of 4 inches they should be shifted into 3-inch pots, from which they can later on be transplanted into the open ground.

Cuttings can be successfully rooted under glass. They should be of young wood from the ends of branches, and about 4 inches in length. Inserted in clear sand over bottom heat they will strike roots in a month or two; without bottom heat they root very slowly. It is sometimes advised to keep them covered with bell-jars until they have formed roots.

Layering is used in France to perpetuate choice forms. It is somewhat tedious, but more certain than any other vegetative means of propagation. Those branches which are closest to the ground are bent down and covered with soil for the space of 3 to 6 inches. They require no care except to keep the soil fairly moist, and they will root in six months.

Whip-grafting and veneer-grafting are successfully practised under glass, using as stocks seedling feijoas of the diameter of a lead pencil. The cions should be of about the same diameter and of young but firm wood.

Several named varieties have been established, of which the most prominent are Andre and Besson.

F. W. Popenoe.
}}
{{Plantbox
| name = ''Feijoa''
| common_names = Pineapple Guava, Feijoa, Guavasteen
| growth_habit = [[Shrub]] or Tree
| high = 25 ft (8 m)
| wide = 25 ft (8 m)
| origin = S Brazil, N Argentina, W Paraguay, Uruguay
| poisonous =
| lifespan =
| exposure = Sun, semi-shade
| water = regular (deep), drought tolerant
| features = Fruit, flowers, foliage
| hardiness = 15 F
| bloom =
| usda_zones = 8a-10b
| sunset_zones = 7-9, 12-31, warmer 32
| color = IndianRed
| name = Feijoa
| image = Feijoa_HortResearch.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Pineapple Guava ''Feijoa sellowiana'' fruit
| regnum = Plantae
| divisio = Magnoliophyta
| classis = Magnoliopsida
| ordo = Myrtales
| familia = Myrtaceae
| genus = Feijoa
| species = sellowiana
}}

The '''Feijoa''' ('''''Feijoa sellowiana''''', synonym ''Acca sellowiana''), also known as '''Pineapple Guava''' or '''Guavasteen''', is an [[evergreen]] [[shrub]] or small [[tree]], 1-7 m in height, originating from the highlands of southern [[Brazil]], parts of [[Colombia]], [[Uruguay]] and northern [[Argentina]]. In more recent times Feijoa sellowiana has been renamed Acca sellowiana, but most sources still use the older name. It is a warm-[[temperate]] to [[subtropical]] [[plant]] that will also grow in the [[tropic]]s but requires some winter chilling to fruit. In the [[northern hemisphere]] it has been cultivated as far north as western [[Scotland]] but does not fruit every year, as winter temperatures below about -9°C will kill the flower buds.

Feijoas prefer cool winters and moderate summers (80° to 90° F), and are generally adapted to areas where temperatures stay above 15° F. Flower production is poor in areas with fewer than 50 hours of chilling. The flavor of the fruit is much better in cool than in warm regions. Even thought the plants are relatively hardy, sudden fall frosts can damage ripening fruit and late spring frosts can destroy blossoms. Spring frost damage is most likely in mild-winter areas, where the plants are not completely hardened off and respond to warm spells by blooming early.

Growth Habit: The feijoa is a slow-growing evergreen shrub that can reach 15 ft. high and 15 ft. wide. The bark is pale gray and the spreading branches are swollen at the nodes and white-hairy when young. In addition to the fruit it provides, the shrub also doubles handsomely as a landscape specimen. When planted close together, the shrubs make a nice hedge, screen, or windbreak. Feijoas can also be espaliered or trained as a small tree (20 to 25 ft. tall) with one or more trunks. The wood is dense, hard, and brittle.

Foliage: The evergreen, thick, leathery leaves of the feijoa are opposite, short-petioled and bluntly elliptical. In size they range from 1 to 2-1/2 inches long and 5/8 to 1 inch wide. The leaves are smooth soft green on top and silvery underneath, flashing nicely in a gentle breeze.

Flowers: The 1 inch showy, bisexual flowers, borne singly or in a cluster, have long, bright red stamens topped with large grains of yellow pollen. Flowers appear late, from May through June. Each flower contains four to six fleshy flower petals that are white tinged with purple on the inside. These petals are mildly sweet and edible and can make a refreshing addition to spring salads. Birds eating the petals pollinate the flower.

It has been said that feijoa pollen is transferred by birds that are attracted to and eat the flowers, but bees are the chief pollinators. Most flowers pollinated with compatible pollen show 60 to 90% fruit set. Hand pollination is nearly 100% effective. Two or more bushes should be planted together for cross-pollination unless the cultivar is known to be self-compatible. Poor bearing is usually the result of inadequate pollination.

[[Image:feijoas_on_white.jpg|thumb|left|Whole and cut feijoas.]]
Fruits: The fruits range from 3/4 to 3-1/2 inches long and vary in shape from round to elongated pear shape, with the persistent calyx segments adhering to the apex. The waxy skin is dull blue-green to blue or grayish green, sometimes with a red or orange blush. Skin texture varies from smooth to rough and pebbly and is 3/16 to 5/8 inch thick. The fruit emits a strong long-lasting perfume, even before it is fully ripe. The thick, white, granular, watery flesh and the translucent central pulp enclosing the seeds are sweet or subacid, suggesting a combination of pineapple and guava or pineapple and strawberry, often with overtones of winter green or spearmint. There are usually 20 - 40, occasionally more, very small, oblong seeds hardly noticeable when the fruit is eaten.

The [[fruit]] matures in [[autumn]] and is green, chicken-egg-sized, and ellipsoid-shaped. It has a sweet, aromatic flavour. The flesh is juicy and is divided into a clear jelly-like seed pulp and a firmer, slightly gritty opaque flesh nearer the skin. The fruit drops when ripe, but can be picked from the tree prior to drop to prevent bruising. This plant is [[monotypic]] in its [[genus]]. Like the closely-related [[guava]], the fruit pulp has a gritty texture which is utlised in some natural cosmetic products as an exfoliant.

==Cultivation==
Location: To protect the fruit from sunburn and other adverse effects of high temperature, choose a plant site away from hot, reflected sun. The feijoa can tolerate partial shade and slight exposure to salt spray. They also make an excellent foundation planting, either singly or as an informal hedge.

[[Image:Feijoa flower02.jpg|right|thumb|Feijoa flowers]]
Some [[grafting|grafted]] cultivars are self fertile. Most are not, and require a [[pollenizer]]. Seedlings may or may not be of usable quality, and may or may not be self fertile. In [[New Zealand]], the [[pollinator]]s are medium sized birds such as the [[Silvereye]] in the cooler parts of the South Island, the [[blackbird]] or the [[Indian myna]] further North, which feed on the sweet, fleshy petals of the feijoa flower. In some areas where the species has been introduced, it has been unproductive due to lack of pollinators.

Soil: Feijoas will grow in a wide variety of soils. The best harvests, however, come from plants growing in well-drained soil with a pH between 5.5 and 7.0. They are fairly salt tolerant, but salinity slows growth and reduces yields.

Irrigation: Foundation plantings of feijoas in summer dry California have survived for several years without supplemental water. Lack of water, however, will cause the fruit to drop. For quality harvests, water deeply on a regular basis, especially during flowering and fruit periods, and mulch the soil around the plants to protect the shallow roots.

Fertilization: Feijoas grow slowly and require only light applications of a complete fertilizer. A feeding of 8-8-8 NPK once every two months can speed growth.

Pruning: Pruning is not required to keep plants productive, but a light pruning in the summer after fruit is harvested will encourage new growth and increase yields the following year. Thinning the plant also permits easier harvesting. When grown as a hedge, the feijoa responds well to heavy pruning or shearing, but this reduces flower and fruit production.

[[Image:Feijoa cut.jpg|thumb|right|Cut overmature fruit]]
Harvest: In southern California the fruits ripen 4-1/2 to 6 months after flowers appear and in 5-1/2 to 7 months in the San Francisco area. As the fruit matures, its color changes almost imperceptibly. The best way is to allow them to fall from the tree. Giving the tree a shake and gathering the fruit from the ground every couple of days is the usual method of harvesting. To keep the fruit from bruising, place a tarp or other large cloth under the tree to catch them as they fall. Feijoas can also be picked when firm and mature and allowed to ripen at room temperature, although the quality will not be as good as tree ripened fruit. When the fruits are immature the seed pulp is white and opaque, becoming clear and jelly-like when ripe. Mature fruit can be stored in the refrigerator for about a week, but after that the quality declines. Fruits are at their optimum maturity when the seed pulp has turned into a clear jelly with no hint of browning. Once the seed pulp and surrounding flesh start to brown, the fruit is over mature and shouldn't be eaten. Feijoas are mainly eaten fresh as a dessert or in salads, but can also be cooked in puddings, pies, etc. After peeling, the fruit should be immediately dipped into water containing fresh lemon juice to prevent the flesh from turning brown.

===Propagation===
The feijoa grows easily from seed, but the seedlings are not always true to type. Seeds are separated by squeezing the seedy pulp into a container, covering with water, and letting the liquid stand for 4 days to ferment. The seeds are then strained out and dried before sowing. The seeds will retain viability for a year or more if kept dry. Germination takes place in 3 weeks. The plant fruits in 3 - 5 years from seed. Vegetative means are necessary to reproduce a variety. Young wood cuttings will root within two months with bottom heat and mist. Whip, tongue or veneer grafting methods are sometimes successful, as is air-layering and ground layering. Cutting-grown plants of named varieties are most desirable, because they can be trained in a variety of ways, and can be maintained as multitrunked shrubs without concern that suckers will develop into "rogue" branches.

===Pests and diseases===
The feijoa is remarkably pest and disease-resistant. It is occasionally attacked by by black scale in California, as well as fruit flies where that is a problem.

==Cultivars==
* '''Apollo''' - Medium to large, oval fruit. Smooth, thin, light-green skin with blue-green surface bloom, subject to bruising and purpling. Pulp well-developed, slightly gritty. Flavor very pleasant, quality excellent. Ripens mid to late-season. Tree upright and spreading, to 8 ft. tall, vigorous and productive. Self-fertile, and will pollinate Gemini.
* '''Choiceana''' - Originated in Australia. Small to medium-sized, round to oval fruit, 2 to 3-1/2 inches long. Skin fairly smooth. Flavor and quality good. Ripens in midseason. Tree moderately vigorous, spreading. Almost or always, but not less than 42% self-fertile.
* '''Coolidge''' - Originated in Australia prior to 1908. Small to medium-sized fruit, 4 or more inches in length and 2-1/2 inches in diameter. Form pyriform to oblong or elongated. Skin somewhat wrinkled. Flavor mild, indifferent quality. Tree upright and strong growing, a reliable and heavy bearer, 100% self-fertile. The most widely planted cultivar in California.
* '''Edenvale Improved Coolidge''' - Originated in Santa Cruz, Calif. by Frank Serpa of Edenvale Nurseries. Large, oblong fruit of very good to excellent flavor and quality. Ripens in October. Tree slow growing. Self-fertile, precocious and productive. Grows best in climates similar to cool, coastal ares of southern California.
* '''Edenvale Late''' - From Edenvale Nurseries. Mediuim-sized, oblong fruit of very good to excellent flavor and quality. Ripens late, in January,and over a long period of time. Tree slow growing. Self-fertile, very productive. Grows best in climates similar to cool, coastal areas of southern California.
* '''Edenvale Supreme''' - From Edenvale Nurseries. Medium-sized, oblong fruit of very good to excellent flavor and quality. Ripens in November. Best eaten soon after harvest. Tree slow growing. Self-fertile, precocious and productive. Grows best in climates similar to cool, coastal areas of southern California.
* '''Gemini''' - Fruit small to medium, egg-shaped. Skin very smooth, thin, dark green with a heavy bloom. Flavor and texture excellent. Ripens in early autumn, earlier than Apollo. Tree upright, spreading, to 8 ft tall. Moderately vigorous, high yielding, partially self-fruitful, but cross pollination is recommended for best fruit quality.
* '''Mammoth''' - Selected in New Zealand from seedlings of the Choiceana. Large, round to oval fruit, to 8-1/2 ounces, resembling Coolidge. Skin thick, somewhat wrinkled. Flesh somewhat gritty, quality and flavor very good. Matures early in midseason. Softer and not as good a shipper as Triumph. Tree of upright habit, to 10 ft. tall, strong growing. Self-fertile, but bears larger fruit, with cross-pollination.
* '''Moore''' - Large, flavorsome fruit. Ripens in midseason. Very vigorous plant. Recommended for California.
* '''Nazemetz''' - Originated in San Diego, Calif. by Alexander Nazemetz. Large, pear-shaped fruit, averaging 3 ounce in weight. Side walls moderately thin. Pulp translucent and sweet. Flavor and quality excellent. Ripens in late October to mid-December. Unlike that of many other cultivars, the pulp of Nazemetz does not darken after being cut or as it ripens, but retains its clear color. Tree self-fertile, but bears most heavily when cross-pollinated. Good pollinator for Trask.
* '''Pineapple Gem''' - Originated in Azusa, Calif. by Monrovia Nursery. Small, round fruit of good to very good quality. Mid to late season ripening. Tree self-fruitful but bears heavier crops if pollinated. Does poorly under cool, coastal conditions.
* '''Trask''' - Originated as a bud sport of Coolidge. Medium to large, oblong fruit, up to 3-1/2 inches long and weighing 3 to 5 ounces. Rough, dark green skin. Shells thicker and grittier than Coolidge. Flavor and quality good to very good. Ripens early. Tree self-fertile, but most productive when cross-pollinated. Precocious. Ideal pollinator for Nazemetz.
* '''Triumph''' - Selected in New Zealand from seedlings of the Choiceana cultivar. Short, oval, plump fruits., not pointed as those of Coolidge, medium to large. Skin uneven but firm. Flesh somewhat gritty but with good seed to pulp ratio. Excellent sharp flavor. Ripens to midseason. Tree upright, of medium vigor. Bears heavily if pollinated. Good pollinator for Mammoth.

==References==
* [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/feijoa.html California Rare Fruit Growers: Feijoa Fruit Facts]
*{{wplink}}
* Facciola, Stephen. Cornucopia: a Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, 1990.
* Morton, Julia F. Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resources Systems, Inc. 1987. pp. 367-370.
* Ortho Books. All About Citrus and Subtropical Fruits. Chevron Chemical Co. 1985. pp. 44-45.

==External links==
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/feijoa.html Fruits of Warm Climates: Feijoa]
* [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/feijoa.html California Rare Fruit Growers: Feijoa Fruit Facts]
* [http://www.feijoa.org.nz/ New Zealand Feijoa Growers Association Inc.]

[[Category:Evergreen tree]]
[[Category:Evergreen shrub]]

[[Category:Fruit]]

[[Category:Flowers]]
[[Category:Spring bloom]]
[[Category:Summer bloom]]

[[Category:White flowers]]
[[Category:Red flowers]]
[[Category:Pink flowers]]

[[Category:Silver foliage]]

[[Category:Large plant]]

[[Category:USDA Zone 8]]
[[Category:USDA Zone 9]]
[[Category:USDA Zone 10]]

Fedia

2009-06-18T14:02:11Z

Pradeep:

{{Inc|
Fedia (application doubtful). Valerianaceae. One glabrous branching annual of the Medit. region, sometimes grown as an ornamental and also as a salad plant. Lvs. entire or dentate: fls. red, small, in more or less dense terminal cymes; peduncles thick and fistular; corolla with an elongated tube and a 2-lipped limb, irregular at the base; stamens 2; style entire or 2-3-fid. F. Cornucopia?, DC. (Valeriana Cornucapiae, Linn.), a variable species, usually with purplish sts., grows 10-16 in. high: lvs. nearly all radical, oval-oblong, shining green. It is sometimes known as African valerian. The lvs. are eaten as salad, being related to corn-salad. The plant seems not to be in the American trade.
}}
__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
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| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
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{{Inc|

Fedia (application doubtful). Valerianaceae. One glabrous branching annual of the Medit. region, sometimes grown as an ornamental and also as a salad plant. Lvs. entire or dentate: fls. red, small, in more or less dense terminal cymes; peduncles thick and fistular; corolla with an elongated tube and a 2-lipped limb, irregular at the base; stamens 2; style entire or 2-3-fid. F. Cornucopia?, DC. (Valeriana Cornucapiae, Linn.), a variable species, usually with purplish sts., grows 10-16 in. high: lvs. nearly all radical, oval-oblong, shining green. It is sometimes known as African valerian. The lvs. are eaten as salad, being related to corn-salad. The plant seems not to be in the American trade.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Fatsia japonica

2009-06-18T14:01:17Z

Pradeep:

{{Inc|
Fatsia japonica, Decne. & Planch. (Aralia japonica, Thunb., not Hort.? A. Sieboldii, Hort.). Lvs. downy at first, finally shining green: fls. in umbels. Japan, China.—Abroad are cult, forms with white or golden margins and a form reticulated with gold markings. Var. Moseri, Hort., is regarded as an improved, more compact-growing variety which originated with Moser of Fontainebleau. Intro, into Amer. by Mon- tarioso Nurseries, Santa Barbara, Calif.

Wilhelm Miller.

N. TAYLOB.
}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Fatsia japonica''
| image = Fatsia japonica0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = [[Araliaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Fatsia]]''
| species = '''''F. japonica'''''
| binomial = ''Fatsia japonica''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carl Peter Thunberg|Thunb.]]) [[Decne.]] & [[Planch.]]
}}

'''''Fatsia japonica''''' ('''Fatsi''' or '''Japanese Aralia'''; [[synonymy|syn.]] ''Aralia japonica'' Thunb., ''A. sieboldii'' Hort. ex [[K.Koch]]) is a species of ''[[Fatsia]]'', native to southern [[Japan]].

It is an [[evergreen]] [[shrub]] growing to 3-6 m tall, with stout, sparsely branched stems. The [[leaf|leaves]] are spirally-arranged, large, 20-50 cm in width and on a petiole up to 50 cm long, leathery, palmately lobed, with 7-9 broad lobes, divided to half or two-thirds of the way to the base of the leaf; the lobes are edged with coarse, blunt teeth. The [[flower]]s are small, white, borne in dense terminal compound [[umbel]]s in late autumn or early winter, followed by small black [[fruit]].

The name "Fatsi" is older Japanese, meaning 'eight' (in present-day Japanese ''hachi''), referring to the eight lobes. The name "Japanese Aralia" is due to the genus formerly being classified within a broader interpretation of the related genus ''[[Aralia]]'' in the past.

===Cultivation and uses===
It is commonly grown as an [[ornamental plant]] in warm temperate regions where winters do not fall below about -15°C.

==References==
*Huxley, A., ed. (1992). ''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. Macmillan.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/316.shtml BBC Gardening: ''Fatsia japonica'']

<gallery>
Image:Fatsia Japonica 01 Helen Fowler.jpg|Fruiting body
Image:Fatsia japonica.jpg|A small ''Fatsia japonica'' leaf
Image:Fatsia japonica1.jpg|Close-up of flower umbel
</gallery>

[[Category:Araliaceae]]
[[Category:Flora of Japan]]
{{Apiales-stub}}

Fatsia

2009-06-18T13:58:58Z

Pradeep:

{{Inc|
Fatsia (from a Japanese name). Araliaceae. Halfhardy shrubs or small trees, used for subtropical foliage effects in the North, and planted permanently far South.

Fatsia has 2 species, belonging to the Panax series, in which the petals are valvate, while in the Aralia series they are more or less overlapping, but the sides affixed at the base. Within the Panax series, Polyscias has the pedicel articulated under the fl., while in Fatsia and Acanthopanax the pedicel is continuous with the fl. Fatsia is distinguished from the hardier and lessfamiliar but worthy Acanthopanax by the greater length and distinctness of the styles. This genus is doubly interesting as producing the famous rice paper of the Chinese, and two rivals of the castor-oil plant in bold subtropical effects, made by large lvs., the lobes of which spread out like fingers.

While fatsias require more care in the North than the hardy aralias, their massive subtropical appearance is highly distinct. A perfect specimen is figured in Gardening 5:133, where W.R. Smith says of F. papyrifera: "This plant produces the beautiful substance known as rice paper; it grows to 10 ft. high, with a st. 4 in. diam., full of white pith like the elder; in a full-grown specimen the pith is about 1 in. diam. It is divided into pieces 3 in. long, and by the aid of a sharp instrument is unrolled, forming the thin, narrow sheets known as rice paper, greatly used by the Chinese for drawing figures of plants and animals, and also for making artificial fls. Until about 1850 the source of this substance was unknown to scientists. The Chinese, on inquiry, gave very fanciful figures and descriptions of it. ... It is destined to be a people's plant, as 1/2in. of the root will grow and form a good plant the first season. It has survived most winters for the past 5 years in Washington, D. C."

As associates in groups of bold-habited plants, F. W. Burbidge suggests Polygonum sachalinense, Chamaerops Fortunei and Rodgersia podophylla. For contrast with feathery and cut-leaved foliage, he suggests bamboos, aucubas, cut-leaved maples and various ivies. Fatsia may be grown in the temperate house in the North, outdoors southward. It is easily grown and propagated. The species are unarmed; the very spiny plant sometimes referred to this genus as F. horrida, is treated under Echinopanax, which see. Siebert and Voss declare that most of the plants sold as Fatsia japonica are Aralia spinosa. These plants like shade. Full sunlight for an hour or two in early morning is enough. They should have a shelter-spot, where the wind will not whip their foliage.
}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Fatsia''
| image = Fatsia japonica0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Fatsia japonica'' in flower
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = [[Araliaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Aralioideae]]
| genus = '''''Fatsia'''''
| genus_authority = [[Joseph Decaisne|Decne.]] & [[Jules Émile Planchon|Planch.]]
| synonyms =
''Diplofatsia'' [[Takenoshin Nakai|Nakai]]
''[[Boninofatsia]]'' [[Takenoshin Nakai|Nakai]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Fatsia japonica]]'' 
''[[Fatsia oligocarpella]]'' 
''[[Fatsia polycarpa]]''
}}

'''''Fatsia''''' is a small [[genus]] of three species of [[evergreen]] [[shrub]]s native to southern [[Japan]] and [[Taiwan]]. They have stout, sparsely branched stems bearing spirally-arranged, large leathery, palmately lobed [[leaf|leaves]] 20-50 cm in width, on a petiole up to 50 cm long, and small creamy-white [[flower]]s in dense terminal compound [[umbel]]s in late autumn or early winter, followed by small black [[fruit]].

'''''Fatsia japonica''''', known as '''Fatsi''' or '''Japanese Aralia''' (also occasionally as glossy-leaved paper plant, castor oil plant, fig-leaf palm), is a shrub growing to 3-6 m tall. The leaves have 7-9 broad lobes, divided to half or two-thirds of the way to the base of the leaf; the lobes are edged with coarse, blunt teeth. It is native to southern Japan. The name "Fatsi" is older Japanese, meaning 'eight' (in present-day Japanese ''hachi''), referring to the eight lobes. The name "Japanese Aralia" is due to the genus formerly being classified within a broader interpretation of the related genus ''[[Aralia]]'' in the past (synonyms include ''Aralia japonica'' and ''Aralia sieboldii''). It is a popular [[garden]] shrub in areas where winters do not fall below about -15°C.

'''''Fatsia oligocarpella''''', from the [[Bonin Islands]], differs in the lobes on the leaves being less coarsely toothed, but is otherwise very similar. It is [[naturalised]] in [[Hawaii]].

'''''Fatsia polycarpa''''' is native to [[Taiwan]]. The leaves have 9-13 deep, narrow lobes, divided nearly to the base of the leaf. Some authors treat it in a separate genus, as ''Diplofatsia polycarpa''.

A sterile [[hybrid]] between ''Fatsia japonica'' and [[Ivy|''Hedera hibernica'']], named ''[[Fatshedera|× Fatshedera lizei]]'', has been produced in cultivation in [[western Europe]].

Some species formerly included in ''Fatisa'' are now classified in other genera. ''Fatsia papyrifera'' is now ''[[Tetrapanax|Tetrapanax papyrifer]]'' and ''Fatsia horrida'' is now ''[[Oplopanax horridus]]''.

<gallery>
Image:Fatsia japonica.jpg|A small ''Fatsia japonica'' leaf
Image:Fatsia japonica1.jpg|Close-up of flower umbel
</gallery>

== External links ==
* [http://aoki2.si.gunma-u.ac.jp/BotanicalGarden/PICTs/munin-yatude.jpeg Photo of ''Fatsia oligocarpella'' foliage]
* [http://www.ukoasis.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/fatspoly1.jpg Photo of ''Fatsia polycarpa'' foliage]

[[Category:Araliaceae]]

Fernelia

2009-06-17T18:07:58Z

Fern-Balls

2009-06-17T18:07:12Z

Felicia petiolata

2009-06-17T18:04:29Z

Felicia amelloides

2009-06-17T18:03:46Z

Felicia

2009-06-17T18:02:53Z

Pradeep:

Felicia

2009-06-17T18:01:49Z

Fedia

2009-06-17T18:00:34Z

Faradaya

2009-06-17T17:50:57Z

Fallugia paradoxa

2009-06-17T17:49:34Z

Fallugia

2009-06-17T17:47:25Z

Fagus sylvatica

2009-06-17T17:46:50Z

Fagus grandifolia

2009-06-17T17:45:41Z

Fagopyrum tataricum

2009-06-17T17:40:30Z

Fagopyrum esculentum

2009-06-17T17:39:58Z

Fagopyrum

2009-06-17T17:39:23Z

Fagelia bituminosa

2009-06-17T07:29:08Z

Fagelia

2009-06-17T07:28:28Z

Fabiana imbricata

2009-06-17T07:27:11Z

Faba

2009-06-17T07:26:07Z

Fabiana

2009-06-17T07:25:22Z