Envoy at 16:43, 8 October 2007

2007-10-08T16:43:57Z

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{{redirect|Yuca|other uses|Yuca (disambiguation)}}

{{Taxobox
| color = dark
| name = Cassava
| image = Koeh-090.jpg
| image_width = 210px
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Malpighiales]]
| familia = [[Euphorbiaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Crotonoideae]]
| tribus = [[Manihoteae]]
| genus = ''[[Manihot]]''
| species = '''''M. esculenta'''''
| binomial = ''Manihot esculenta''
| binomial_authority = Crantz
}}
{{wiktionary|Cassava}}
The '''cassava''', '''casava''', '''yuca''' or '''manioc''' (''Manihot esculenta'') is a woody [[shrub]] of the [[Euphorbiaceae]] (spurge family) native to [[South America]] that is extensively cultivated as an annual [[agriculture|crop]] in [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] regions for its edible [[starch]]y [[tuberous root]], a major source of [[carbohydrate]]s. Indeed, cassava is the third largest source of carbohydrates for human food in the world, with Africa its largest center of production.<ref>Claude Fauquet and Denis Fargette, (1990) "African Cassava Mosaic Virus:
Etiology, Epidemiology, and Control" ''Plant Disease'' Vol. 74(6): 404-11. [http://www.apsnet.org/pd/PDFS/1990/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf]</ref>

==Description==
[[Image:Manihot esculenta dsc07325.jpg|left|thumb|Unprocessed cassava root]]
The root is long and tapered, with a firm homogeneous flesh encased in a detachable rind, about 1 [[1 E-3 m|mm]] thick, rough and brown on the outside. Commercial [[Variety (biology)|varieties]] can be 5 to 10 [[centimetre|cm]] in [[diameter]] at the top, and 50 to 80 cm long. A woody cordon runs along the root's [[Coordinate axis|axis]]. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish; raw cassava tastes like a mixture of potato and coconut flesh, it breaks like a [[carrot]], and darkens quickly upon exposure to the air. For this reason, the skinned root must be kept under water until it is ready to be [[cooking|cooked]]. The root's flavor spoils in a day or so, even if kept unskinned and under [[refrigeration]], which is a problem for [[supermarket]]s. A solution is usually to freeze it or seal it in wax.

The cassava plant gives the highest yield of [[food energy]] per cultivated area per day among crop plants, except possibly for [[sugarcane]]. Cassava roots are very rich in [[starch]], and contain significant amounts of calcium (50 mg/100g), phosphorus (40 mg/100g) and vitamin C (25 mg/100g). However, they are poor in [[protein]] and other [[nutrient]]s. In contrast, cassava leaves are a good source of protein if supplemented with the [[amino acid]] [[methionine]].

==History and economic impact==
[[Image:Casava.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Cassava in cultivation in Democratic Republic of Congo]]
[[Image:2005cassava.PNG|thumb|left|Cassava output in 2005]]
[[Image:Yuca2LarcoMuseum.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Yuca. Moche Culture. 100 A.D. [[Larco_Museum|Larco Museum Collection.]]]]

The oldest evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400 year old [[Maya]] site, [[Joya de Ceren]], in [[El Salvador]].<ref>[*University of Colorado at Boulder, (2007) [http://www.colorado.edu/news/releases/2007/305.html "CU-Boulder Archaeology Team Discovers First Ancient Manioc Fields In Americas"], press release August 20, 2007, accessed August 29, 2007.</ref> although the species ''Manihot esculenta'' likely originated further south in [[Brazil]] and [[Paraguay]]. With its high food potential, it had become a staple food of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the West Indies by the time of the Spanish conquest, and its cultivation was continued by the colonial Portuguese and Spanish. Forms of the modern domesticated species can be found growing in the wild in the south of [[Brazil]]. While there are several wild ''Manihot'' species, all varieties of ''M. esculenta'' are [[cultigen]]s.

World production of cassava root was estimated to be 184 million [[tonne]]s in [[2002]], the majority of production is in [[Africa]] where 99.1 million tonnes were grown, 51.5 million tonnes were grown in [[Asia]] and 33.2 million tonnes in [[Latin America]] and the [[Caribbean]].

In many places in the Americas, yuca was the staple food. This translated into many images of yuca being used in [[pre-Colombian]] art. The [[Moche]] people often depicted yuca in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco_Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref>

==Farming==
Cassava is harvested by hand by raising the lower part of stem and pulling the roots out of the ground, then removing them from the base of the plant . The upper parts of the stems with the leaves are plucked off before harvest. Cassava is propagated by cutting the stem into sections of appoximately 12", these being planted prior to the wet season.

==Processing and toxicity==
[[Image:PeeledCassava.jpg|left|thumb|Cassava root peeled]]
The root cannot be consumed raw, since it contains free and bound [[cyanogenic]] [[glucoside]]s which are converted to [[cyanide]] in the presence of [[linamarase]], a naturally occurring [[enzyme]] in cassava. Cassava varieties are often categorized as either "sweet" or "bitter", signifying the absence or presence of toxic levels of cyanogenic glucosides. The so-called "sweet" (actually "not bitter") cultivars can produce as little as 20 milligrams of cyanide (CN) per kilogram of fresh roots, while "bitter" ones may produce more than 50 times as much (1 g/kg). Cassavas grown during [[drought]] are especially high in these toxins. <ref> {{cite journal | author=Aregheore E. M, Agunbiade O. O. | title=The toxic effects of cassava (manihot esculenta grantz) diets on humans: a review. | journal=Vet. Hum. Toxicol.| year=1991 | volume=33 | pages=274-275 }}</ref> <ref> {{cite journal | author= White W. L. B., Arias-Garzon D. I., McMahon J. M., Sayre R. T. | title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava,
The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production | journal=Plant Physiol. | year= 1998 | volume=116 | pages=1219-1225 }}</ref> One dose of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside (40mg)is sufficient to kill a cow. [[Konzo]] (also called mantakassa) is a paralytic neurological disease associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed bitter cassava. Dr [[Howard Bradbury]], an Australian plant chemist, has developed a simple method to reduce the cyanide content of cassava flour.<ref>{{cite journal
| author = J. Howard Bradbury
| journal = Journal of food composition and analysis
| volume = 19
| issue = 4
| pages = 388-393
| publisher = Elsevier, New York
| date = 2006
| title = Simple wetting method to reduce cyanogen content of cassava flour
| doi = 10.1016/j.jfca.2005.04.012}}</ref> The method involves mixing the flour with water into a thick paste and then letting it stand in the shade for five hours in a thin layer spread over a basket, allowing an enzyme in the flour to break down the cyanide compound. The cyanide compound produces hydrogen cyanide gas, which escapes into the atmosphere, reducing the amount of poison by up to five-sixths and making the flour safe for consumption the same evening. This method is currently being promoted in rural African communities that are dependent on cassava.<ref>{{cite press release
| title = New method of cyanide removal to help millions
| publisher = The Australian National University
| date = 7 February 2007
| url = http://info.anu.edu.au/mac/Media/Media_Releases/_2007/_February/_070207_Bradbury_cassava.asp
| accessdate = 4 May 2007}}</ref>

For some smaller-rooted "sweet" varieties, cooking is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The larger-rooted "bitter" varieties used for production of flour or starch must be processed to remove the cyanogenic glucosides. The large roots are peeled and then ground into flour, which is then soaked in water, squeezed dry several times, and toasted. The starch grains that float to the surface during the soaking process are also used in cooking.<ref> {{cite journal | author=G. Padmaja | title=Cyanide detoxification in cassava for food and feed uses. | journal=Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. | year=1995 | volume= | pages=299-339 }}</ref> The flour is used throughout the [[Caribbean]].
The traditional method used in West Africa, is to peel the roots and put them into water for 3 days to ferment. The roots are dried or cooked. In Nigeria they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them.

==Uses==
Cooked in various ways, cassava is used in a great variety of dishes. The soft-boiled root has a delicate flavor and can replace boiled potatoes in many uses: as an accompaniment for meat dishes, or made into [[purée]]s, [[dumpling]]s, [[soup]]s, stews, gravies, etc.. Deep fried (after boiling or steaming), it can replace fried potatoes, with a distinctive flavor. [[Tapioca]] and [[foufou]] are made from the starchy cassava root flour. Tapioca is an essentially flavourless starchy ingredient, or fecula, produced from treated and dried cassava (manioc) root and used in cooking. It is similar to sago and is commonly used to make a milky pudding similar to rice pudding. Cassava flour, also called [[tapioca]] flour or tapioca starch, can also replace [[wheat]] flour, and is so-used by some people with wheat [[allergy|allergies]] such as [[coeliac disease]]. [[Bubble tea|Boba]] tapioca pearls are made from cassava root. It is also used in cereals for which several tribes in South America have used it extensively.

The juice of the bitter cassava, boiled to the consistence of thick syrup and flavored with spices is called '''Cassareep'''. It is used as a basis for various sauces and as a culinary flavoring, principally in tropical countries. It is exported chiefly from [[Guyana]].

The leaves are pounded to a fine chaff and cooked as a [[palaver sauce]] in [[Sierra Leone]], usually with palm oil but vegetable oil can also be used. Palaver sauces contain meat and fish as well. It is necessary to wash the leaf chaff several times to remove the bitterness.

==Ethnomedical uses==
*The bitter variety of ''Manihot'' root is used to treat diarrhea and [[malaria]].
*The leaves are used to treat [[hypertension]], headache, and pain.
*Cubans commonly use cassava to treat [[irritable bowel syndrome]], the paste is eaten in excess during treatment.

===Bermuda===
Cassava pie is a traditional Christmas dish. The cassava is peeled and chopped finely, then mixed with egg, butter and sugar. It is layered in a baking dish in alternate layers with chicken or pork. It is then baked in the oven, and leftovers may be fried. It is eaten as a savoury dish, either on the side or as a main meal.


===Brazil===
Cassava is heavily featured in the [[cuisine of Brazil]]. The dish ''vaca atolada'' ("mud-stranded cow") is a meat and cassava stew, cooked until the root has turned into a paste; and ''pirão'' is a thick gravy-like gruel prepared by cooking fish bits (such as heads and bones) with cassava flour, or ''farinha''. In the guise of ''[[farofa]]'' (lightly roasted [[flour]]), cassava combines with rice and beans to make the basic meal of the (poor) average Brazilians. [[Farofa]] is also one of the most common side dishes to many Brazilian foods including ''[[feijoada]]'', the famous meat-and-beans stew. Boiled cassava is also made into a popular sweet [[pudding]]. Deep-fried (after boiling), it is often eaten as a snack or side dishes.

===Bolivia===
Cassava is very popular in [[Bolivia]] with the name of ''[[yuca]]'' and consumed in a variety of dishes. It is common, after boiling it, to fry it with oil and eat it with a special hot sauce known as ''[[llajwa]]'' or along with [[cheese]] and ''[[choclo]]'' (dried [[maize|corn]]).
In warm and rural areas, ''yuca'' is used as a substitute of bread in everyday meals. The capacity of cassava to be stored for a long time makes it suitable as an ideal and cheap reserve of nutrients. Recently, more restaurants, hotels and common people are including cassava into their original recipes and everyday meals as a substitute for [[potato]] and bread.

===Colombia===
In [[Colombia]], cassava is widely known as ''yuca'' among its people. In the Colombian interior, it is used mainly in the preparation of [[Sancocho]] (a kind of rich soup) and other soups. In the [[Valle del Cauca Department|Valle department]] it is famous, the [[Pandebono]] bread made of the yuca [[dough]].

In the coastal region, is known especially in the form of "Bollo de yuca" (a kind of bread) or "enyucados". "Bollo de yuca" is a dough made of ground yuca that is wrapped in aluminum foil and then boiled, and is served with butter and cheese. "Enyucado" is a dessert made of ground boiled yuca, anise, sugar, and sometimes guava jam. In the caribbean region of Colombia it is also eaten roasted, fried or boiled with soft homemade cheese or [[cream cheese]] and mainly as guarnition of fish dishes.

===Costa Rica===
In Costa Rica, ''yuca'' is widely used, both boiled in soups or fried and served with fried pieces of pork and lime. This is sold as a snack in most places you travel. When travelling by bus, the bus is often boarded by a local, trying to sell "sandwich bagged" snacks of yuca, pork and lime. Two main sources of food for locals in rural areas, living off resources within their own land, are yuca and plantain.

===Panama===
In Panama, ''yuca'' is sometimes used to make ''carimanolas.'' The boiled cassava is mashed into a dough and then filled with spiced meat. The meat-filled dumplings are deep fried to a golden brown. It is also used in brothy soups together with chicken, potatoes, and other vegetables.

===Dominican Republic===
Cassava bread (''casabe'') is an often used complement in meals, much in the same way as wheat bread is used in Spanish, French and Italian lunches. Also, as an alternative to side-dishes like french fries, ''arepitas de yuca'' are consumed, which are deep-fried buttered lumps of shredded cassava. ''Bollitos'', similar to the Colombian ones are also made. The root, in its boiled and peeled form, is also present in the typical Dominican stew, the ''Sancocho'', together with [[plantains]], potatoes, ''yautía'', among other vegetables (it can also be eaten singly as an alternative to boiled potatoes or plantains). Also, a type of ''[[empanada]]'' called ''catibía'' has its dough made out of cassava flour.

===Jamaica===
In [[Jamaica]], cassava is traditionally made into "bammy," a small fried cassava cake inherited from the native [[Arawak]] Indians. The cassava root is grated, rinsed well, dried, salted, and pressed to form flat cakes about 4 inches in diameter and 1/2-inch thick. The cakes are lightly fried, then dipped in coconut milk and fried again. Bammies are usually served as a starchy side dish with breakfast, with fish dishes or alone as a snack.

===Eastern Caribbean===
In the small islands of the Eastern Caribbean, cassava is traditionally peeled and boiled and served with flour dumplings and other root vegetables like potatoes, yams, sweet potatoes and dasheen.

===Venezuela===
As in the Dominican Republic, Cassava bread (''casabe'') is also a popular complement in traditional meals, as common as the [[arepas]]. Venezuelan Casabe is made by roasting ground cassava spread out as meter wide pancake over a hot surface (''plancha''). The result has the consistency of a cracker, and is broken in small pieces for consumption. There is also a sweet variety, called [[Naiboa]], made as a sandwich of two casabe pancakes with a spread of [[Rapadura|Papelón]] in between. Naiboa also has a softer consistency. In general terms, Mandioc is an essential ingredient in Venezuelan food, and can be found stewed, roasted or fried as sides or complements.

===Peru===
Cassava is also popular in [[Peru]] by the name of yuca, where it is used both boiled and fried. Boiled yuca is usually served as a side dish or in soup, while fried yuca is usually served together with [[onion]]s and [[capsicum|pepper]]s as an apperitif or accompanying [[chicha]].

===Paraguay===
Cassava is a staple dish of [[Paraguay]]. It grows extremely well in the soil conditions throughout the country, and it is eaten at practically every meal. It is generally boiled and served as a side dish. It is also ground into a flour and used to make [[chipa]], a bagel-shaped bread popular during holidays.

===Countries in Africa===
[[Image:Gozo.jpg|left|thumb|Woman pounding the cassava root into [[fufu]] in the Central African Republic.]]
In the humid and sub-humid areas of tropical [[Africa]], cassava is either a primary [[staple food]] or a secondary co-staple. [[Nigeria]] is the world's largest producer of cassava. In [[West Africa]], particularly in [[Nigeria]] and [[Sierra Leone]], cassava is commonly prepared as [[Eba]] or [[Garri]]. The cassava is grated, pressed, fermented and fried then mixed with boiling water to form a thick paste. In [[West Africa]] the cassava root is pounded, mixed with boiling water to form a thick paste and cooked as Eba. Historically, people economically forced to depend on cassava risk chronic poisoning diseases, such as [[tropical ataxic neuropathy]] (TAN), or such [[malnutrition]] diseases as [[kwashiorkor]] and [[endemic goitre]]. However, the price of cassava has risen significantly in the last half decade and lower income people have turned to other carbohydrate-rich foods like rice and spaghetti.

In [[Central Africa]], cassava is traditionally processed by boiling and mashing. The resulting mush can be mixed with spices then cooked further or stored. A popular snack is made by marinating cassava in salted water for a few days then grilling it in small portions. Many cassava dishes exist in various African countries.

In [[Tanzania]], cassava is known as mihogo, plural form, in Swahili. Though customs vary from region to region, and the methods of cooking cassava vary accordingly, the main method is simply frying it. The skin of the root is removed and the remains are sectioned into small bit-size chunks which can then be soaked in water to aid in frying. Thereafter, the chunks are fried and then served, sometimes with a chili-salt mixture. This fried cassava is a very common street food as it is relatively cheap to buy, easy to prepare and good to eat. The staple of the rural people, [[ugali]], is a porridge more akin to mashed potatoes in consistency. In [[Zambia]] this is known as [[nshima]]. In [[Kenya]], the [[Kikuyu]] name for it is [[mwanga]], pl [[mianga]].

Residents in the Sub-Saharan nation of the [[Central African Republic]], have developed multiple, unique ways of utilizing the abundant cassava plant. In addition to the methods described above, local residents fry thin slices of the cassava root resulting in a crunchy snack similar in look and taste to potato chips. The root can be pounded into flour and made into bread or cookies. This flour can also be mixed with precise amounts of salt and water to create a heavy liquid used as white paint in construction. The cassava plant leaf is also soaked and boiled for extended periods of time to remove toxins and then eaten. The taste is similar to spinach. In the local language Sango, this is called gozo. U.S. Peace Corps Volunteers stationed in the Central African Republic refer to the cassava plant as the multi-purpose staple.

===India===
[[Image:Tapioca with fish.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Boiled casava served with fish and [[chutney]]]]

In the state of [[Kerala]], [[India]], cassava is a secondary staple food. Boiled casava is normally eaten with fish [[curry]] (''kappayum meenum'' in [[Malayalam]]) or meat, and is a traditional favorite of many Keralians. ''Kappa biriyani'' — cassava mixed with meat is a popular dish in central Kerala. In [[Tamil Nadu]], the National Highway 68 between [[Thalaivasal]] and [[Attur]] has many cassava processing factories (local name Sago Factory) alongside it - indicating an abundance of it in the neighborhood. Cassava is widely cultivated and eaten as a staple food in [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The household name for processed cassava is ''sabu dana'' or ''saggu biyyam''.

===Indonesia===
Cassava is widely eaten in [[Indonesia]], and used as a staple food during hard times but has lower status than rice. It is boiled or fried (after steaming), baked under hot coals, or added to [[kolak]] dessert. It is also fermented to make ''[[peuyeum]]'' and ''[[tape (Indonesian cuisine)|tape]]'', a sweet paste which can be mixed with sugar and made into a drink, the alcoholic (and green) ''es tape''. It is available as an alternative to potato crisps. [[Gaplek]], a dried form of cassava, is an important source of calories in the off-season in the limestone hills of southern [[Java]].
Their young leaves also eaten as ''gulai daun singkong'' (cassava leaves in coconut milk), ''urap'' (javanese salad) and as main ingredient in ''buntil'' (javanese vegetable rolls).

===Animal feed===
Cassava is used as animal feed extensively in Asia, South America, Africa, and Europe. Especially in places such as Thailand, China, Nigeria, Brazil, etc.

==Cassava hay==
'''Cassava hay''', is hay which is produced at a young growth stage, 3-4 months and being harvested about 30-45 cm above ground, sun-dried for 1-2 days until having final dry matter of at least 85%. The cassava hay contains high protein content, 20-27% CP and condensed tannins, 1.5-4%. It is used as a good roughage source for dairy, beef, buffalo, goats, sheep by either directing feeding or as a protein source in the concentrate mixtures. More details can be searched from [[Metha Wanapat]] [[AJAS]],Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences.

==Cassava pests==
{{Main|List of cassava diseases}}

In [[Africa]] the cassava [[mealybug]] (''Phenacoccus manihoti'') and [[cassava green mite]] (''Mononychellus tanajoa'') can cause up to 80% crop loss, which is extremely detrimental to the production of [[subsistence]] farmers. These pests were rampant in the 1970s and 1980s but were brought under control following the establishment of the [[Biological Control Centre for Africa]]. The Centre investigated [[biological control]] for cassava pests; two [[South American]] natural enemies ''[[Apoanagyrus lopezi]]'' (a [[parasitoid]] wasp) and ''[[Typhlodromalus aripo]]'' (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite respectively.

The cassava mosaic virus causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root. The virus is spread by the [[whitefly]] and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late 1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus has been spreading at a rate of 50 miles per year, and as of 2005 may be found throughout [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]]. [http://www.stltoday.com/stltoday/news/stories.nsf/sciencemedicine/story/0E96D8B196362C0A8625723F0022D403?OpenDocument]

==References==
<references/>

*FAO, [http://www.fao.org/es/esc/en/20953/21029/highlight_28829en.html June 2003 cassava market assessment], 2003
*{{cite journal | author=Cereda, M.P. and Mattos, M.C.Y. | title=Linamarin - The Toxic Compound of Cassava | journal=Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins (online)| year=1996 | volume=2 | pages=6-12 |ISSN= 0104-7930 |doi= 10.1590/S0104-79301996000100002 |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-79301996000100002&lng=en&nrm=iso }}
*{{Grocers}}

==External links==
{{commons|Manihot esculenta}}
*[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/CropFactSheets/cassava.html Cassava - Purdue University Horticulture]
*[http://www.iita.org/cms/details/cassava_project_details.aspx?zoneid=63&articleid=267 Cassave Research at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)]
*[http://www.new-agri.co.uk/98-6/focuson/focuson9.html Cassava Pests: From Crisis to Control]
*[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/cassava.htm GE cassava plants that have reduced cyanogens]
*[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm GE cassava plants whose roots are over 2.5 times normal size]
*[http://www.inoculatedmind.com/?p=121 The Inoculated Mind - Interview with Dr. Richard Sayre, credited with lowering cyanogen content and engineering giant cassava]
*[http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/gcds/GCS.htm Global Cassava Development Strategy]
*[http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food/8F024e/8F024E01.htm The Case for Cassava]
*[http://www.knowingfood.com/tapioca/tapiocarecipe.html Asian Cassava (Tapioca) Dessert Recipes]
*[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070820/sc_nm/volcano_manioc_dc Mayans grew Manoic]

[[Category:Crops originating from the Americas]]
[[Category:Euphorbiaceae]]
[[Category:Flora of South America]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Underutilized crops]]
[[Category:Staple foods]]

Cassava - Revision history

Envoy at 16:43, 8 October 2007