Envoy at 11:06, 12 September 2007

2007-09-12T11:06:36Z

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{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Chokeberry
| image = Aronia prunifolia0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Purple Chokeberry
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Rosales]]
| familia = [[Rosaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Maloideae]]
| genus = '''''Aronia'''''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''Aronia arbutifolia'' (L.) Pers.<br/>
''Aronia melanocarpa'' (Michx.) Elliott
}}

The '''chokeberries''' (''Aronia'') are two species of [[deciduous]] [[shrub]]s in the family [[Rosaceae]], native to eastern [[North America]] and most commonly found in wet woods and swamps. The two species are readily distinguished by their [[fruit]] color, from which the common names derive. The [[leaf|leaves]] are alternate, simple, and oblanceolate with crenate margins and pinnate venation; in autumn the leaves turn a bold red color. Dark trichomes are present on the upper midrib surface. The [[flower]]s are small, with 5 petals and 5 sepals, and produced in [[corymb]]s of 10-25 together. Hypanthium is urn-shaped. The fruit is a small [[pome]], with a very [[astringent]], bitter flavor; it is eaten by [[bird]]s (birds do not taste astringency and feed on them readily), which then disperse the [[seed]]s in their droppings. The name "chokeberry" comes from the astringency of the fruits which are inedible when raw.

''Aronia'' is closely related to ''[[Photinia]]'', and has been included in that genus in some classifications (Robertson et al. 1991).

'''Red chokeberry''', ''Aronia arbutifolia'', grows to 2-4 m tall, rarely up to 6 m. Leaves are 5-8 cm long and densely pubescent on the underside. The flowers are white or pale pink, 1 cm diameter, with glandular sepals. The fruit is red, 4-10 mm diameter, persisting into winter.

[[Image:Aronia-melanocarpa-Aron.JPG|thumb|left|Black Chokeberry (''Aronia melanocarpa'')]]
'''Black chokeberry''', ''Aronia melanocarpa'', tends to be smaller, rarely exceeding 1 m tall, rarely 3 m, and spreads readily by root sprouts. The leaves are smaller, not more than 6 cm long, with terminal glands on leaf teeth and a glabrous underside. The flowers are white, 1.5 cm diameter, with glabrous sepals. The fruit is black, 6-9 mm diameter, not persisting into winter.

The two species can [[hybrid]]ise, giving the '''Purple Chokeberry''', ''Aronia x prunifolia''. Leaves are moderately pubescent on the underside. Few to no glands are present on the sepal surface. The fruit is dark purple to black, 7-10 mm in diameter, not persisting into winter. <br clear = left>

==Uses==
[[Image:Choke-Berries-IMG 2431 051013 121714.jpg|thumb|right|Red Chokeberry (''Aronia arbutifolia'')]]
The chokeberries are attractive [[ornamental plant]]s for gardens. They are naturally understory and woodland edge plants, and grow well when planted under [[tree]]s. Chokeberries are resistant to drought, insects, pollution, and disease. Several [[cultivar]]s have been developed for garden planting, including ''A. arbutifolia'' 'Brilliant', selected for its striking fall leaf colour, and ''A. melanocarpa'' 'Viking' and 'Nero', selected for larger fruit suitable for [[jam]]-making. [[Juice]] from these berries is [[astringent]] and not sweet, but high in [[Vitamin C]] and [[antioxidants]], and the berries can be used to make juice, [[wine]], and jam after cooking. It is also used as a [[soft drink]] flavoring.

===Food use===
''Aronia melanocarpa'' (chokeberry) has attracted scientific interest due to its deep purple, almost black [[pigmentation]] that arises from dense contents of [[phenolic]] phytochemicals, especially [[anthocyanins]]. Total anthocyanin content in chokeberries is 1480 mg per 100 g of fresh berries, and [[proanthocyanidin]] concentration is 664 mg per 100 g (Wu et al. 2004, 2006). Both values are among the highest measured in plants to date.

The plant produces these pigments mainly in skin of the berries to protect the pulp and seeds from constant exposure to [[ultraviolet radiation]] {{Fact|date=July 2007}}. By absorbing [[Ultraviolet|UV]] rays in the [[blue]]-purple spectrum, pigments filter intense sunlight and thereby have a role assuring regeneration of the species. Brightly colorful pigmentation also attracts birds and animals to consume the fruit and disperse the seeds in their droppings.

Anthocyanins not only contribute toward chokeberry's astringent property (that would deter pests and infections) but also give ''Aronia melanocarpa'' extraordinary antioxidant strength that combats [[oxidative stress]] in the fruit during [[photosynthesis]].

A test tube measurement of antioxidant strength, the [[Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity]] or ORAC, has demonstrated chokeberry with one of the highest values yet recorded, of 16,100 micromoles of Trolox Eq. per 100 g (Wu et al. 2004). See the [[ORAC]] page for reference to other antioxidant plant foods.

There is growing appreciation for consumers to increase their intake of antioxidant-rich plant foods from colorful sources like [[berries]], tree or citrus fruits, vegetables, grains, and spices. Accordingly, a deep blue food source such as chokeberry yields anthocyanins in high concentrations per serving, indicating potential value as a [[functional food]] or [[nutraceutical]].

Analysis of anthocyanins in chokeberries has identified the following individual chemicals (among hundreds known to exist in the plant kingdom); [[cyanidin]]-3-galactoside, [[epicatechin]], [[caffeic acid]], [[quercetin]], [[delphinidin]], petunidin, pelargonidin, peonidin and [[malvidin]]. All these are members of the [[flavonoid]] category of antioxidant phenolics.

For reference to phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins and similar plant-derived antioxidants, Wikipedia has a [[list of phytochemicals and foods in which they are prominent]].

===Efficacy in disease models===
Chokeberries' rich antioxidant content may be beneficial as a dietary preventative for reducing the risk of diseases caused by oxidative stress. Among the models under evaluation where preliminary results show benefits of chokeberry anthocyanins are [[colorectal cancer]] (Lala et al. 2006), [[cardiovascular disease]] (Bell & Gochenaur 2006), chronic [[inflammation]] (Han et al. 2005), gastric mucosal disorders ([[peptic ulcer]]) (Valcheva-Kuzmanova et al. 2005), eye inflammation ([[uveitis]]) (Ohgami et al. 2005) and [[liver failure]] (Valcheva-Kuzmanova et al. 2004).

==References==
* Bell, D. R., & Gochenaur, K. (2006). Direct vasoactive and vasoprotective properties of anthocyanin-rich extracts. ''J Appl Physiol.'' 100 (4): 1164-70.
* Han, G.-L., Li, C.-M., Mazza, G., & Yang, X.-G. (2005). Effect of anthocyanin rich fruit extract on PGE2 produced by endothelial cells. ''Wei Sheng Yan Jiu.'' 34 (5): 581-4.
* Lala, G., Malik, M., Zhao, C., He, J., Kwon, Y., Giusti, M. M., & Magnuson, B. A. (2006). Anthocyanin-rich extracts inhibit multiple biomarkers of colon cancer in rats. ''Nutr. Cancer'' 54 (1): 84-93.
* Ohgami, K., Ilieva, I., Shiratori, K., Koyama, Y., Jin, X.-H., Yoshida, K., Kase, S., Kitaichi, N., Suzuki, Y., Tanaka, T., & Ohno, S. (2005). Anti-inflammatory effects of aronia extract on rat endotoxin-induced uveitis. ''Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci.'' 46 (1): 275-81.
* Robertson, K. R., J. B. Phipps, J. R. Rohrer, and P. G. Smith. 1991. A synopsis of genera in Maloideae (Rosaceae). ''Systematic Botany'' 16: 376-394.
* Valcheva-Kuzmanova, S., Marazova, K., Krasnaliev, I., Galunska, B., Borisova, P., & Belcheva, A. (2005). Effect of Aronia melanocarpa fruit juice on indomethacin-induced gastric mucosal damage and oxidative stress in rats. ''Exp Toxicol Pathol.'' 56 (6): 385-92.
* Valcheva-Kuzmanova, S., Borisova, P., Galunska, B., Krasnaliev, I., & Belcheva, A. (2004). Hepatoprotective effect of the natural fruit juice from Aronia melanocarpa on carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver damage in rats. ''Exp Toxicol Pathol.'' 56 (3): 195-201.
* Wu, X., Gu, L., Prior, R. L., & McKay, S. (2004). Characterization of anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins in some cultivars of Ribes, Aronia and Sambucus and their antioxidant capacity. ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 52 (26): 7846-7856.
* Wu, X., Beecher, G. R., Holden, J. M., Haytowitz, D. B., Gebhardt, S. E., & Prior, R. L. (2006). Concentrations of anthocyanins in common foods in the United States and estimation of normal consumption. ''J Agric Food Chem.'' 54 (1): 4069-4075.

__notoc__
[[Category:Maloideae]]
[[Category:Accessory fruit]]
[[Category:Flora of North America]]
[[Category:Flora of Canada]]

Chokeberry - Revision history

Envoy at 11:06, 12 September 2007