Cranberry - Revision history

Raffi at 00:07, 19 March 2010

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Silparaja at 16:15, 9 August 2009

2009-08-09T16:15:52Z

Silparaja at 11:05, 9 August 2009

2009-08-09T11:05:27Z

Raffi: template, rewrite

2009-03-12T20:42:45Z

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Raffi: /* Etymology and history */

2007-04-14T05:21:29Z

Etymology and history

Raffi at 04:24, 14 April 2007

2007-04-14T04:24:21Z

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{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cranberry
| image = Cranberry bog.jpg
| image_width = 255px
| image_caption = Cranberry fruit
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Ericales]]
| familia = [[Ericaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Vaccinium]]''
| subgenus = ''Oxycoccus''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''Vaccinium erythrocarpum''<br/>
''Vaccinium macrocarpon''<br/>
''Vaccinium microcarpum''<br/>
''Vaccinium oxycoccus''
}}
[[Image:Cranberrymap.jpg|thumb|250px|Approximate ranges of the cranberries in sect. ''Oxycoccus'': Red: Common Cranberry. Orange: Small Cranberry. Green: American Cranberry.]]

'''Cranberries''' are a group of [[evergreen]] dwarf [[shrub]]s or trailing vines in the genus '''''[[Vaccinium]]''''' subgenus '''''Oxycoccus''''', or in some treatments, in the distinct genus '''''Oxycoccus'''''. They are found in [[acid]]ic [[bog]]s throughout the cooler parts of the [[Northern Hemisphere]].

Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to 2 m long and 5 to 20 cm in height [http://www.cranberryinstitute.org/about_cranberry.htm], with slender, wiry stems, not thickly woody, and small [[evergreen]] leaves. The [[flower]]s are dark pink, with very distinct ''reflexed'' [[petal]]s, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. They are pollinated by domestic honey bees. The fruit is a [[berry]] that is larger than the leaves of the plant; it is initially white, but turns a deep red when fully ripe. It is edible, with an [[acid]]ic taste that can overwhelm its sweetness.

Cranberries are a major commercial crop in certain US states and Canadian provinces (see "Cultivation and Uses" below). Most cranberries are processed into products such as juice, sauce, and sweetened dried cranberries, with the remainder sold fresh to consumers. [[Cranberry sauce]] is widely regarded as an indispensable part of the traditional American and Canadian [[Thanksgiving]] menu.

==Species and description==
[[Image:Vaccinum oxycoccos 120604.jpg|left|thumb|''Vaccinium oxycoccus'' flowers]]There are three to four species of cranberry, classified in two sections:
;Subgenus ''Oxycoccus'', sect. ''Oxycoccus''
*'''''Vaccinium oxycoccus''''' or ''Oxycoccus palustris'' ('''Common Cranberry''' or '''Northern Cranberry''') is widespread throughout the cool temperate [[Northern Hemisphere]], including northern [[Europe]], northern [[Asia]] and northern [[North America]]. It has small 5-10 mm leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with a purple central spike, produced on finely hairy stems. The fruit is a small pale pink [[berry]], with a refreshing sharp acidic flavour.
*'''''Vaccinium microcarpum''''' or ''Oxycoccus microcarpus'' ('''Small Cranberry''') occurs in northern Europe and northern Asia, and differs from ''V. oxycoccus'' in the leaves being more triangular, and the flower stems hairless. Some botanists include it within ''V. oxycoccus''.
*'''''Vaccinium macrocarpon''''' or ''Oxycoccus macrocarpus'' ('''American Cranberry''', '''Bearberry''') native to northeastern [[North America]] (eastern [[Canada]], and eastern [[United States]], south to [[North Carolina]] at high altitudes). It differs from ''V. oxycoccus'' in the leaves being larger, 10-20 mm long, and in its slightly apple-like taste.
;Subgenus ''Oxycoccus'', sect. ''Oxycoccoides''
*'''''Vaccinium erythrocarpum''''' or ''Oxycoccus erythrocarpus'' ([[Southern Mountain Cranberry]]) native to southeastern [[North America]] at high altitudes in the southern [[Appalachian Mountains]], and also in eastern [[Asia]].

Cranberries are related to the [[bilberry|bilberries]], [[blueberry|blueberries]], and [[huckleberry|huckleberries]], all in ''Vaccinium'' subgenus ''Vaccinium''. These differ in having stouter, woodier stems forming taller shrubs, and in the bell-shaped flowers, the petals not being reflexed.

Some plants of the completely unrelated genus ''[[Viburnum]]'' are sometimes inaccurately called "highbush cranberries".

Cranberries are susceptible to false blossom, a harmful but controllable [[phytoplasma]] disease that is most common in the eastern production areas of Massachusetts and New Jersey.

==Etymology and history==
The name cranberry probably derives from their being a favorite food of [[Crane (bird)|cranes]], though some sources claim the name comes from "'craneberry' because before the flower expands, its stem, calyx, and petals resembled the neck, head, and bill of a crane". Another name, used in northeastern Canada, is '''mossberry'''. An old English name for ''Vaccinium oxycoccus'' is the '''fenberry''', because they were grown in [[fen]] (marsh) lands.

[[Image:Jonathan eastman johnson cranberry harvest.jpg|thumb|''The Cranberry Harvest on the Island of [[Nantucket, Massachusetts|Nantucket]]'', [[Eastman Johnson]], 1880.]]
Cranberries have been eaten by [[Arctic]] peoples for millennia and remain a very popular fruit for wild harvesting in the [[Nordic countries]] and [[Russia]]. In [[Scotland]] the berries were formerly wild harvested but with the loss of suitable habitat, the plants have become so scarce that this is no longer done. In [[North America]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were the first to recognise and use the cranberry as a source of food. Some tribes called the red berries '''Sassamanash'''. They are reported to have introduced the cranberry to starving English settlers in [[Massachusetts]] around 1620, who incorporated the berry into the traditional [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]] feast. [[American Revolutionary War]] veteran [[Henry Hall (American)|Henry Hall]] is alleged to be the first to cultivate the cranberry commercially, in the [[Cape Cod]] town of [[Dennis (town), Massachusetts|Dennis]] around [[1816]].

==Cultivation and uses==
[[Image:Cranberrys beim Ernten.jpeg|thumb|left|Cranberry harvest in [[New Jersey]]]]
Cranberries are a major commercial crop in the American states of [[Massachusetts]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[New Jersey]], [[Oregon]], [[Washington]], and [[Wisconsin]], as well as in the Canadian provinces of [[British Columbia]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Ontario]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Quebec]]. Wisconsin has led the United States in cranberry production since 1995. A very small production is found in southern Chile, in the Baltic States and in eastern Europe.

Historically, cranberry beds were constructed in wetlands. Currently cranberry beds are constructed in upland areas that have a shallow water table. The topsoil is scraped off to form dikes around the bed perimeter. Clean sand is hauled in to a depth of four to eight inches. The surface is laser leveled with a slight crown in the center to facilitate drainage. Beds are frequently drained with socked tile in addition to the perimeter ditch. In addition to making it possible to hold water, the dikes allow equipment to service the beds without driving on the vines. Irrigation equipment is installed in the bed to provide [[irrigation]] for vine growth and for spring and fall frost protection.

Cranberry vines are propagated by moving vines from an established bed. The vines are spread on the surface of the sand of the new bed and pushed into the sand with a blunt disk. The vines are watered frequently during the first few weeks until roots form and new shoots grow. Beds are given frequent light application of nitrogen fertilizer during the first year. The cost of establishment for new cranberry beds is estimated to be about US$70,000 per hectare.

A common misconception about cranberry production is that the beds remain flooded throughout the year. During the growing season cranberry beds are not flooded, but are irrigated regularly to maintain soil moisture. Beds are flooded in the fall to facilitate harvest and again during the winter to protect against low temperatures. In cold climates like Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and eastern Canada the winter flood typically freezes into ice while in warmer climates the water remains liquid. When ice forms on the beds trucks can be driven onto the ice to spread a thin layer of sand that helps to control pests and to rejuvenate the vines. Sanding is done every three to five years.

Cranberries are harvested in the fall when the fruit takes on its distinctive deep red color. This is usually in late September and into October. To harvest cranberries the beds are flooded with six to eight inches of water. A harvester is driven through the beds to remove the fruit from the vines. For the past 50 years water reel type harvesters have been used. Harvested cranberries float in the water and can be corraled into a corner of the bed and conveyed or pumped from the bed. From the farm, cranberries are taken to receiving stations where they are cleaned, sorted, and stored prior to packaging or processing. In 2005 a new type of cranberry harvester called the Ruby Slipper was introduced into the industry. Whether this type of harvester with fewer moving parts will be accepted by the industry still remains to be seen.

White cranberry juice drinks are made from regular cranberries that have been harvested after the fruit are mature, but before they have attained their characteristic dark red color. Yields are lower on beds harvested early and the early flooding tends to damage vines, but not severely.

About 95% of cranberries are processed into products such as juice drinks, sauce, and sweetened dried cranberries. The remaining 5% is sold fresh to consumers. Cranberries destined to processing are usually frozen in bulk containers shortly after arriving at a receiving station. Cranberries for fresh market are stored in shallow bins or boxes with perforated or slatted bottoms to allow air movement to prevent decay. Because harvest occurs in late fall cranberries for fresh market are frequently stored in thick walled barns without mechanical refrigeration. Temperatures are regulated by opening and closing vents in the barn as needed.

Usually cranberries as fruit are served as a [[compote]] or [[jelly]], often known generically as [[cranberry sauce]]. Such preparations are traditionally served with roast [[Domesticated turkey|turkey]] meat and are considered by some to be a staple of the [[Thanksgiving (Canada)|Canadian]] and [[Holidays of the United States|US holiday]] [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]]. The berry is also used in baking ([[muffin]]s, [[scones]] and [[cake]]s) but, unlike many other berries, is normally considered too sharp to be eaten unaccompanied.

Fresh cranberries can be frozen at home, and will keep up to nine months; they can be used directly in recipes without thawing.[http://www.library.wisc.edu/guides/agnic/cranberry/faq.htm]

Cranberry juice, usually sweetened to reduce its natural severe tartness and make "cranberry juice cocktail" or blended with other fruit juices, is a major use of cranberries.

== Health benefits ==

Cranberries are a source of [[polyphenol antioxidant]]s, chemicals which are known to provide certain health benefits to the [[cardiovascular system]] and [[immune system]].

There is some use of cranberry juice by people with [[spinal paralysis]]; regular consumption of the juice is supposed to reduce the rate of [[urinary tract infection]]s. While much of the evidence is equivocal, a number of [[double-blind]] [[clinical trial]]s have been carried out that suggest there actually is an effect: a component of the juice appears to competitively inhibit bacterial attachment to the [[Urinary bladder|bladder]] and [[urethra]][http://www.idsociety.org/Content/ContentGroups/News_Releases/2004_Meeting/A_Glass_(or_Two)_of_Cranberry_Juice_A_Day_May_Keep_Bladder_Infection_Away.htm] allowing the bacteria to be flushed out more easily. Cranberries also act as a [[prebiotic (nutrition)|prebiotic]], promoting the growth of beneficial [[lactobacillus]] bacteria while inhibiting the growth of harmful [[Escherichia coli|E. coli]] and [[listeria]].

An autumn 2004 caution from the [[Committee on Safety of Medicines]], the UK agency dealing with drug safety, advised patients taking [[warfarin]] not to drink cranberry juice after adverse effects were reported.

Cranberries also contain significant concentrations of [[benzoic acid]], which in combination with [[Vitamin C]] forms small amounts of the [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|group 1 carcinogen]] [[benzene]].<ref>[http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/245/indications_of_the_possible_formation_of_benzene_from_benzoic_acid_in_foods.pdf Indications of the possible formation of benzene from benzoic acid in foods (pdf file).]</ref>

Cranberry juice contains a chemical component, a high [[Molecular mass|molecular weight]] non-[[Dialysis (biochemistry)|dializable]] material (NDM), that is able to inhibit and even reverse the formation of [[plaque]] by [[Streptococcus]] mutan pathogens that cause tooth decay.<ref>[http://www.cranberryinstitute.org/health/dental.htm The Cranberry Institute]</ref><ref>[http://www.webmd.com/content/article/115/111780 Blocking tooth decay]</ref>

Cranberry juice also supposedly prevents the formation of kidney stones.

==Marketing and economics==
{{globalize/USA}}
===History===

Cranberry sales have traditionally been associated with the [[United States]] [[holiday]]s of [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]] and [[Christmas]]. Until the [[1930s]] most of the crop was sold fresh.

Cranberry growers have a long history of cooperative [[marketing]]. As early as [[1904]], John Gaynor, a [[Wisconsin]] grower, and A.U. Chaney, a fruit broker from [[Des Moines, Iowa]], organized Wisconsin growers into a cooperative called the Wisconsin Cranberry Sales Company to receive a uniform price from buyers. Growers in [[New Jersey]] and [[Massachusetts]] were also organized into cooperatives, creating the National Fruit Exchange that marketed fruit under the [[Eatmor]] [[brand]]. The success of cooperative marketing almost led to its failure. With consistent and high prices, acreage and production doubled between 1903 and 1917 and prices fell. In 1918, [[US$]]54,000 was spent on advertising, leading to US$1 million in increased sales.

With [[surplus]] cranberries and changing American households some enterprising growers began [[canning]] cranberries that were below-grade for fresh market. [[Competition]] between canners was fierce because [[profit]]s were thin. The [[Ocean Spray]] cooperative was established in 1930 through a merger of three primary processing companies: Ocean Spray Preserving company, Makepeace Preserving Co, and Cranberry Products Co. The new company was called Cranberry Canners, Inc. and used the Ocean Spray label on their products. Since the new company represented over 90% of the market, it would have been illegal (cf. [[antitrust]]) had [[attorney]] John Quarles not found an exemption for [[agricultural cooperative]]s. As of [[2006]], about 65% of the North American industry belongs to the Ocean Spray cooperative. (The percentage may be slightly higher in [[Canada]] than in the U.S.)

A turning point for the industry occurred on [[November 9]], [[1959]] when the secretary of the [[United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare]] [[Arthur S. Flemming]] announced that some of the 1959 crop was tainted with traces of the [[herbicide]] [[aminotriazole]]. The market for cranberries collapsed and growers lost millions of dollars. However, the scare taught the industry that they could not be completely dependent on the holiday market for their products and had to find year round markets for their fruit. They also had to be excruciatingly careful about their use of [[pesticide]]s.

After the aminotriazole scare, Ocean Spray reorganized and spent substantial sums on [[product development]]. New products such as cranberry apple [[juice]] blends were introduced, followed by other juice blends.

A [[Federal Marketing Order]] that is authorized to synchronize supply and demand was approved in 1962. The order has been renewed and modified slightly in subsequent years, but it has allowed for more stable marketing. The market order has been invoked during six crop years: [[1962]] (12%), [[1963]] (5%), [[1970]] (10%), [[1971]] (12%), [[2000]] (15%), and [[2001]] (35%). Even though supply still slightly exceeds demand, there is little will to invoke the Federal Marketing Order out of the realization that any pullback in supply by U.S. growers would easily be filled by Canadian production.

Prices and production increased steadily during the 1980s and 1990s. Prices peaked at about $65.00 per barrel (A cranberry barrel = 100 pounds or 45.4 kg) in 1996 then fell to $18.00 per barrel in 2001. The cause for the preciptous drop was classic oversupply. Production had outpaced consumption leading to substantial inventory in freezers or as concentrate.

Cranberry handlers (processors) include [[Ocean Spray (cooperative)|Ocean Spray]], Cliffstar, Inc., Northland Cranberries, Clement Pappas & Co., Decas Cranberry Products as well as a number of small handlers and processors. <ref> [http://www.pubhort.org/hr/hr21/HR_21_07_00000000.pdf] </ref>

==Nutrition==

Cranberries exhibit a level of [[tannin]]s, in addition to [[antioxidant]]s. Tannins have anti-[[clotting]] properties, and may help reduce both [[urinary tract infection]]s and the amount of [[dental plaque]]-causing bacteria in the mouth, thus being a [[prophylaxis]] for [[gingivitis]].<ref>[http://www.umaine.edu/umext/cranberries/Health%20Benefits%20-%20Keep%20Doctor%20&%20Dentist%20Away.htm University of Maine]</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
|colspan=2|'''Nutrients in raw cranberries'''<ref>[http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin/nut_search.pl U.S. Department of Agriculture: Nutrient Data Laboratory -- USDA Nutrient Database] ''A searchable index of food nutrient composition.'' Search on cranberries for raw cranberry nutrient composition. Search on cranberry for other cranberry products.</ref>
|-
! Nutrient
! Value per 100 grams
|-
| Energy
| 46 kcal
|-
| Fiber, total dietary
| 4.6 g
|-
| Sugars, total
| 4.04 g
|-
| Calcium, Ca
| 8 mg
|-
| Magnesium, Mg
| 6 mg
|-
| Phosphorus, P
| 13 mg
|-
| Potassium, K
| 85 mg
|-
| Sodium, Na
| 2 mg
|-
| Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid
| 13.3 mg
|-
| Vitamin A, IU
| 60 IU
|-
| Carotene, beta
| 36 mcgJ
|-
| Lutein + zeaxanthin
| 91 mcg
|}

See also: [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/duke/farmacy2.pl?1039 Chemicals in ''Vaccinium macrocarpon'']

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
{{cookbook}}
* Germplasm Resources Information Network: [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?18661 Sect. ''Oxycoccus''] and [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?18658 Sect. ''Oxycoccoides'']
* [http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/idcplg?IdcService=GET_FILE&dDocName=CON007448&RevisionSelectionMethod=LatestReleased October 2004 "Current Problems in Pharmacovigilance" (pdf file)] - has [[warfarin]] and cranberry juice caution, p. 10.
* [http://carecure.org/index.php?page=viewarticle&afile=0007@7_November_2001@Cranberry_UTI.htm 2001 review] of evidence for therapeutic effects of cranberry juice
* [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=2653218 1989 study] of cranberry juice's possible role in inhibiting bacterial adherence to bladder cells
* [http://www.cranberryinstitute.org The Cranberry Institute] for information on cranberry's health benefits.
* [http://www.wiscran.org/ Wisconsin State Cranberry Growers Association] for information on cranberry culture
* [http://www.cranberries.org Cape Cod Cranberry Growers' Association] for information on cranberry culture
* [http://www.umass.edu/cranberry University of Massachusetts Amherst Cranberry Station] for information on cranberry research
* [http://www.library.wisc.edu/guides/agnic/cranberry/cranhome.html Cranberry Library Page] Exhaustive link page for cranberry information hosted at the University of Wisconsin-Madison
* [http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=44426885&x=-89758258&z=15&l=0&m=s Wikimapia] An overhead view of a cranberry farm near Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin
*[http://www.umaine.edu/umext/cranberries/Health%20Benefits%20-%20Keep%20Doctor%20&%20Dentist%20Away.htm Cranberries keep the doctor and dentist away.]

[[Category:Ericaceae]]
[[Category:Fruit]]

@@ Line 40: / Line 40: @@
 Some of the berries, especially in Massachusetts, are cleaned and packed on the bog as they are picked, and sent directly to market, but this immediate packing tends to poor keeping. Most cranberries, after picking, are put in boxes which are packed in well - ventilated storehouses. Here they are kept from a few days to several months and the cleaning and packing for market is done immediately before they are shipped.
-The machine which has been the standard for cleaning cranberries for many years is provided with a fan to blow away all grass, pieces of vine, dried-up berries or anything of like nature that may have gotten in the bernes while being picked. The berries are then allowed to roll down a series of steps; those that are sound are elastic and will bounce like little rubber balls. There are bands of cloth stretched above the steps in such a way that when a berry bounces in the right direc
+The machine which has been the standard for cleaning cranberries for many years is provided with a fan to blow away all grass, pieces of vine, dried-up berries or anything of like nature that may have gotten in the bernes while being picked. The berries are then allowed to roll down a series of steps; those that are sound are elastic and will bounce like little rubber balls. There are bands of cloth stretched above the steps in such a way that when a berry bounces in the right direction it is received on the cloth and slides down into the box placed for the good berries without more bouncing. The rotten berries having lost their elasticity are not able to bounce over the cloth partition that separates the good from the bad. With berries that are nearly spherical and not too juicy this machine works very well, provided there are no frozen berries to be taken out. Berries damaged by frost are even more elastic than sound ones and will all go into the box for good fruit. Neither will the bounce machines work well with long or oval berries; when these strike on their pointed ends they fail to bounce and there is always a considerable percentage of sound fruit found in the refuse box. As there may be anywhere from ten to thirty or more steps, it is easily understood that berries going over these machines are not in the best possible condition for long keeping after they are put on the market. Some varieties of Berries which are very juicy and tender cannot be put through these machines at all as the steps get so sticky with the juice that the berries will not bounce.
 }}

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:05, 9 August 2009
Line 1:		Line 1:
		+	{{Inc\|
		+	Cranberry. A name applied to trailing species of the genus Vaccinium (Ericaceae) ; much grown in North America for the fruit. Plate XXIX.
		+
		+	Of the true cranberries, there are two species in North America, the small (Vaccinium Oxycoccus), and the large (V. macrocarpon). The large cranberry, V. macrocarpon (Fig. 1087), is now cultivated on thousands of acres in the United States and this cranberry culture is one of the most special and interesting of all pomological pursuits. This cranberry grows wild only in North America, where it is native to acid swamps in the cooler parts of the United States and in Canada. Here it trails its slender stems and small oval evergreen leaves over the sphagnum and boggy turf, and the firm red berries which ripen during September and October often persist on the vines till the following spring or even longer. The curve of the slender pedicel in connection with the bud just before the blossom opens, with its resemblance to the head and neck of a crane, is said to have suggested the name craneberry which is now shortened to cranberry.
		+
		+	The low-bush cranberry, or wolfberry (V. Vitis Idaea), is much used in Nova Scotia and other parts, and is gathered and snipped in large quantities to Boston; but it is not cultivated. This berry is also common in Europe, where it is much prized. The quantities of this fruit imported into the United States from various sources is considerable.
		+
		+	The ideal bog for cranberry- culture should have the following qualifications: (1) Capability of being drained of all surface water, so that free water does not stand higher than 1 foot below the surface in the growing season. (2) Soil that retains moisture through the summer, for cranberries suffer greatly in drought. (3) Sufficient water-supply to enable it to be flooded. (4) A fairly level or even surface, so that the flooding will be of approximately uniform depth over the entire area. (5) Not over liability to frosts.
		+
		+	The water of the streams and pools in the acid swamps or bogs, which are the natural habitat of the cranberry, is usually, but not invariably, of a brownish or amber color, and some of the most common associate plants are the swamp huckleberry or blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), the Cassandra or leather-leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata), the red maple (Acer rubrum) and the swamp cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides).
		+
		+	There are three centers for the production of cranberries in the United States: Massachusetts, where cranberry-culture began and from which come the most berries; New Jersey second; and Wisconsin third. While the culture is in most respects similar in these three centers, each has its own characteristic methods of preparation and care of the bogs. There is also an important and growing cranberry industry in Nova Scotia.
		+
		+	The cranberry bog. Figs. 1088-1090.
		+	To insure success in cranberry-culture, a prime requisite is to locate the bog on soil on which wild cranberries or some of their common associate plants flourish. This is usually a black peaty formation from a few inches to 7 or 8 feet in depth, overlying sand which in turn is frequently underlaid by a "hardpan" that is nearly impervious to water and the presence of which had much to do with the formation of the peat. Another requisite is to make sure of an ample supply of water, preferably of the brownish color, for winter flooding and for protection from frost in spring and fall. Flooding at special times is also the safest and surest weapon against many kinds of insects. Without an ample supply of water, cranberry-culture is so hazardous as hardly to be worth undertaking. The building of the dams is the first step necessary for the improvement of a bog. A foundation for these should be made by digging a trench entirely through the peat, even if it should be 8 feet or more thick, to the clean sand, and this trench should be filled with sand free from all foreign material; above this foundation, embankments are built of clean sand and faced up with sods of live turf to prevent their being washed by the waves of the lake formed. The dams should be sufficiently high to flood the higher parts of the bog a foot deep, which will frequently make the water in the deeper parts 3 to 6 feet or more in depth. Gates or flumes must be constructed at the lowest point in these dams to provide for drawing the water off the bog and provision made for surface drainage. The latter is generally accomplished by opening the natural stream, if there should be one, or by digging an open ditch through the natural drainage center of the piece of land being improved. Side ditches should be dug leading into the stream, or main ditch, in sufficient number to drain off all surface water; they may be made from 1 to 3 feet deep, according to the character of the land to be drained. A reservoir built above the bog is very desirable in facilitating control of the water. In frosty Wisconsin it is considered almost necessary to have three times the area of the bog in reservoir to insure the crops. If a bog is situated on a stream subject to high water, provision must be made for keeping the flood water from the bog, as the crop would be destroyed if it were flooded during blooming time or seriously injured by flooding at any time during the active growing season. Winter flooding of cranberry bogs is to prevent heaving and winter-killing. The water is put on about the first of December or after the vines have become thoroughly reddened by cold weather.
		+
		+	Cranberry bogs, being always lower than the surrounding land, are peculiarly liable to damage by frost, serious loss frequently occurring when an ordinary farmer would not dream of danger, and a good supply of water is the only preventive that has been found efficient. The time of starting growth in the spring may be controlled by the time the water is drained on, and the earlier spring frosts may so be avoided while an ample supply of water permits reflooding when a later severe frost threatens. Reflooding about the first of June, provided the water has not been withdrawn earlier than May 5 to 10, will also furnish protection from a number of damaging insects and will not injure the crop, provided care is taken that the water does not stand on any part of the bog more than forty- eight hours. If a bog should become seriously infested with insects later in the season, it is occasionally profitable to sacrifice what remains of the year's crop and clear the bog of insects by flooding. This sometimes results in a greatly increased yield the following year. Damage from a light frost in the fall, before the berries are picked, may be prevented by raising the water in the ditches and about the roots of the vines. Protection from a heavy frost requires covering the plants with water, but this will cause immature berries to rot and should be done with great caution or the damage from water may be greater than it would have been from frost. During summer the irrigation of the crop is accomplished by holding the water low or high in the ditches, as the varying season may demand.
		+
		+	Preparation and tillage.
		+	Before cranberries are planted, the land must be cleared of all its natural growth, the stumps and roots removed and the ground leveled to a greater or less extent. The more nearly level a bog is made, so that proper drainage is provided for, the more economical it is in the use of water and the easier it is to provide the optimum amount of irrigation during the summer. The first cost of such perfect leveling, however, may be prohibitive or it may require the removal of all the good peaty soil over a considerable area, leaving nothing but pure sand in which the cranberries will not grow well. In many places, the removal of the natural growth may best be accomplished by cutting off the tops of the bushes and trees so that they will not extend above the surface of the water and flooding for two years, thus killing all vegetation. While this flooding entails loss of time, it is much easier and cheaper to clear away the dead roots and stumps than five ones, and when no sand is applied to the surface, as is the rule in New Jersey, it greatly lessens the expense of keeping the bog free from weeds for there are no live roots in the ground to send up suckers. In some places, as in most of Wisconsin, this method of drowning out is impracticable, because the surface soil, in which are the roots of all the living plants, will separate from the more perfectly decomposed peat below and rise to the surface of the water in floating islands making death to vegetation by drowning impossible. In such situations the ground must be turfed and all roots and stumps grubbed out. In either case the roots and stumps are best disposed of by piling in heaps and burning. In Massachusetts, it is the custom to cover the cleared and leveled bog with 3 to 5 inches of sand, which makes it still easier to keep the bogs free from weeds and acts as a moisture-retaining mulch for the underlying peat. Where sanding is practised, it is the custom to apply a fresh coat of sand an inch or less in depth every two or three years; this keeps the vines short and close. Cuttings for planting are secured by mowing vigorous vines from an old bog with a scythe. These cuttings, preferably not more than 8 or 10 inches long, are thrust diagonally into the surface of the bog from 12 to 14 inches apart. Not more than 3 or 4 inches of the top should be exposed, and if the bog is sanded, care should be taken that the cutting extends well into the muck below. As the vines grow they send out runners in all directions, netting the ground completely over. These sometimes grow as much as 6 feet in length and root in the soil at frequent intervals. From the runners grow upright stems which, in time, cover the bog with a solid mat of vegetation. The uprights are preferably not more than 6 inches high but under some soil conditions grow to a foot or more when the fruit is likely to be scanty. From the time of planting, three to five years must pass before the ground is matted over and a crop may De expected.
		+
		+	The character of the growth of cranberry vines precludes any cultivation in the ordinary sense of the word. The care of the bogs consists in keeping them free from other plants, which is accomplished almost entirely by hand-pulling; the regulation of the irrigation water, and preventive and curative measures for the many diseases and insect enemies to which they are subject.
		+	Fertilizing of cranberries has met with considerable success in increased crops, various brands of commercial fertilizer having been employed. The subject is not well understood, however, and is attracting the attention of many thoughtful growers and their scientific helpers in the state experiment stations.
		+
		+	The pretty little pinkish white flowers of the cranberry open during June, when the bogs are not flooded, but the holding of the winter water till May throws the fullest bloom into the early part of July.
		+
		+	Diseases and insects.
		+	Spraying with bordeaux mixture is very generally practised to prevent "scald," a fungous disease which has been especially injurious to the growers of New Jersey and which was so named because it was long thought to be caused by the scalding effect of the hot sun shining on berries wet with dew. As it is seldom possible to run heavy spraying machinery over the bogs, spraying involves the use of very long lines of hose or laying of pipe lines, or both, the spraying of each property being a separate engineering problem.
		+
		+	Insects of many kinds attack the roots, the leaves, the blossoms and the fruit of the cranberry. Knowledge of the life history of each of these is necessary for successful warfare against it, and detailed information is best secured from the various bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and the agricultural experiment stations of New Jersey, Wisconsin and Massachusetts. More varieties of insects may be successfully combated with water than with any other one thing, as already explained. Arsenical poisons are expensive to apply, of indifferent success in destroying insects on the bogs, and they are suspected of being an actual poison to the vines.
		+
		+	Varieties.
		+	There are now many varieties of cranberries in cultivation, all of them having been selected from wild vines or vines that appeared naturally in cultivated These varieties vary in shape, color, size, productiveness, time of ripening and adaptation to different soils. Some of the forms are shown in Figs. 1091-1093. The most generally cultivated are the Early Blacks and the Howes, both of which originated in the Cape Cod district and which together make about 50 per cent of the berries marketed from all three of the cranberry states.
		+
		+	The Early Blacks are ready to harvest about the first of September both in Massachusetts and New Jersey, and the last of the Howes are seldom picked before the middle of October. As the pickers advance over a cranberry bog, they pick clean as they go and do not go back for successive relays of ripening berries as with most other small fruits.
		+
		+	Picking and grading.
		+	In Massachusetts most of the picking is done by a scoop, by which the berries are raked from the vines. When the vines are short, the uprights not tangled, and the picker is experienced, berries can be harvested in this way very rapidly and with very little damage to either fruit or vines. The bogs are kept in good condition for "scooping" by pruning every three or four years with a rake the teeth of which are knives placed about 6 inches apart. The scoop (Fig. 1094) is also used to a considerable extent in New Jersey and Wisconsin but in these states a great many berries are still picked by hand.
		+
		+	Some of the berries, especially in Massachusetts, are cleaned and packed on the bog as they are picked, and sent directly to market, but this immediate packing tends to poor keeping. Most cranberries, after picking, are put in boxes which are packed in well - ventilated storehouses. Here they are kept from a few days to several months and the cleaning and packing for market is done immediately before they are shipped.
		+
		+	The machine which has been the standard for cleaning cranberries for many years is provided with a fan to blow away all grass, pieces of vine, dried-up berries or anything of like nature that may have gotten in the bernes while being picked. The berries are then allowed to roll down a series of steps; those that are sound are elastic and will bounce like little rubber balls. There are bands of cloth stretched above the steps in such a way that when a berry bounces in the right direc
		+
		+	}}
	__NOTOC__{{Plantbox		__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
	\| name = ''Vaccinium'' (see text)		\| name = ''Vaccinium'' (see text)

← Older revision		Revision as of 05:21, 14 April 2007
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	The name cranberry probably derives from their being a favorite food of [[Crane (bird)\|cranes]], though some sources claim the name comes from "'craneberry' because before the flower expands, its stem, calyx, and petals resembled the neck, head, and bill of a crane". Another name, used in northeastern Canada, is '''mossberry'''. An old English name for ''Vaccinium oxycoccus'' is the '''fenberry''', because they were grown in [[fen]] (marsh) lands.		The name cranberry probably derives from their being a favorite food of [[Crane (bird)\|cranes]], though some sources claim the name comes from "'craneberry' because before the flower expands, its stem, calyx, and petals resembled the neck, head, and bill of a crane". Another name, used in northeastern Canada, is '''mossberry'''. An old English name for ''Vaccinium oxycoccus'' is the '''fenberry''', because they were grown in [[fen]] (marsh) lands.

−	~~[[Image:Jonathan eastman johnson cranberry harvest.jpg\|thumb\|''The Cranberry Harvest on the Island of [[Nantucket, Massachusetts\|Nantucket]]'', [[Eastman Johnson]], 1880.]]~~
	Cranberries have been eaten by [[Arctic]] peoples for millennia and remain a very popular fruit for wild harvesting in the [[Nordic countries]] and [[Russia]]. In [[Scotland]] the berries were formerly wild harvested but with the loss of suitable habitat, the plants have become so scarce that this is no longer done. In [[North America]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas\|Native Americans]] were the first to recognise and use the cranberry as a source of food. Some tribes called the red berries '''Sassamanash'''. They are reported to have introduced the cranberry to starving English settlers in [[Massachusetts]] around 1620, who incorporated the berry into the traditional [[Thanksgiving (United States)\|Thanksgiving]] feast. [[American Revolutionary War]] veteran [[Henry Hall (American)\|Henry Hall]] is alleged to be the first to cultivate the cranberry commercially, in the [[Cape Cod]] town of [[Dennis (town), Massachusetts\|Dennis]] around [[1816]].		Cranberries have been eaten by [[Arctic]] peoples for millennia and remain a very popular fruit for wild harvesting in the [[Nordic countries]] and [[Russia]]. In [[Scotland]] the berries were formerly wild harvested but with the loss of suitable habitat, the plants have become so scarce that this is no longer done. In [[North America]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas\|Native Americans]] were the first to recognise and use the cranberry as a source of food. Some tribes called the red berries '''Sassamanash'''. They are reported to have introduced the cranberry to starving English settlers in [[Massachusetts]] around 1620, who incorporated the berry into the traditional [[Thanksgiving (United States)\|Thanksgiving]] feast. [[American Revolutionary War]] veteran [[Henry Hall (American)\|Henry Hall]] is alleged to be the first to cultivate the cranberry commercially, in the [[Cape Cod]] town of [[Dennis (town), Massachusetts\|Dennis]] around [[1816]].