Envoy at 03:49, 13 September 2007

2007-09-13T03:49:59Z

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{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cubeb
| image = Koeh-244.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Piperales]]
| familia = [[Piperaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Piper (genus)|Piper]]''
| species = '''''P. cubeba'''''
| binomial = ''Piper cubeba''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

'''Cubeb''' (''Piper cubeba''), or '''tailed pepper''', is a plant in [[genus]] ''[[Piper (genus)|Piper]]'', cultivated for its [[fruit]] and [[essential oil]]. It is mostly grown in [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]], hence sometimes called '''Java pepper'''. The fruits are gathered before they are ripe, and carefully dried. Commercial cubebs consist of the dried [[berries]], similar in appearance to [[black pepper]], but with stalks attached — the "tails" in "tailed pepper". The dried [[pericarp]] is wrinkled, its color ranges from grayish-brown to black. The [[seed]] is hard, white and oily. The odor of cubebs is described as agreeable and [[aromatic]]. The taste, pungent, acrid, slightly bitter and persistent. It has been described as tasting like [[allspice]], or like a cross between allspice and black pepper.

Cubeb came to Europe via [[India]] through the trade with the Arabs. The name ''cubeb'' comes from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''kababah'' (<big>'''كبابة'''</big>), which is of unknown origin,<ref name="Katzer_1">{{Harv|Katzer|1998}}</ref> by way of [[Old French]] ''quibibes''.<ref name="Hess_1">{{Harv|Hess|1996|p=395}}</ref> Cubeb is mentioned in [[alchemy|alchemical writings]] by its Arabic name. In his ''Theatrum Botanicum'', [[John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]] tells that the king of [[Portugal]] prohibited the sale of cubeb in order to promote the [[black pepper]] (''Piper nigrum'') around 1640. It experienced a brief resurgence in 19th century Europe for medicinal uses, but has practically vanished from the European market since. It continues to be used as a [[Flavor|flavoring agent]] for [[gin]]s and [[cigarette]]s in the West, and as a seasoning for food in [[Indonesia]] and [[Africa]].

==History==
In the 4th century BC, [[Theophrastus]] mentioned ''komakon'', joining it with [[cinnamon]] and [[cassia]] as an ingredient in aromatic confections. [[Guillaume Budé]] and [[Claudius Salmasius]] have identified ''komakon'' with cubeb, probably due to the resemblance which the word bears to the [[Javanese language|Javanese]] name of cubeb, ''kumukus''. This is seen as a curious evidence of Greek trade with Java in a time earlier than that of Theophrastus.<ref name="Cordier, Yule_1">{{Harv|Cordier, Yule|1920}} Chapter XXV.</ref> It is unlikely Greeks acquired them from somewhere else, since Javanese growers protected their [[monopoly]] of the trade by sterilizing the berries by scalding, ensuring that the vines were unable to be cultivated elsewhere.<ref name="Katzer_1">{{Harv|Katzer|1998}}.</ref>

In the [[Tang Dynasty]], cubeb was brought to China from [[Srivijaya]]. In India the spice came to be called ''kabab chini'', that is, "Chinese cubeb," possibly because the Chinese had a hand in its trade, but more likely because it was an important item in the trade with China. In China this pepper was called both ''vilenga'', and ''vidanga'', the cognate [[Sanskrit]] word. Li Hsun thought it grew on the same tree as black pepper. The physicians of Tang administered it to restore appetite, to cure "demon vapors", to darken the hair, and to perfume the body. However, there is no evidence showing that cubeb was used as a condiment in China.<ref name="Schafer_1">{{Harv|Schafer|1985|p=151}}</ref>

''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'', compiled in the 9th century, mentions cubeb as a remedy for infertility, showing it was already used by Arabs for medicinal purpose. Cubeb was introduced to [[Arab cuisine|Arabic cuisine]] around 10th century.<ref name="Hal_1">{{Harv|Hal|2002|p=32}}</ref> ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'', written in late 13th century, describes Java as a producer of cubeb, along with other valuable spices. In 14th century, cubeb was imported into [[Europe]] from the [[Grain Coast]], under the name of pepper, by merchants of [[Rouen]] and [[Lippe]]. A 14th century moral tale exemplifying [[gluttony]] by the Franciscan writer [[Francesc Eiximenis]] describes the eating habits of a worldly cleric who consumes a bizarre concoction of egg yolks with cinnamon and cubeb after his baths, probably intended as an aphrodisiac.

Cubeb was thought to be repulsive to demons in Europe as it was in China. Ludovico Maria Sinistrari, a [[Holy Orders|Catholic priest]] who wrote about methods of [[exorcism]] in the late 17th century, includes cubeb as an ingredient in making an incense that wards off [[incubus]].<ref name="Sinistrari_1">{{Harv|Sinistrari|2004|p=56-57}}. "...Incubus none the less persisted in appearing to her constantly, in the shape of an exceptionally handsome young man. At last, among other learned men, whose advice had been taken on the subject, was a very profound Theologian who, observing that the maiden was of a thoroughly phlegmatic temperament, surmised that that Incubus was an aqueous Demon (there are in fact, as is testified by Guazzo (''Compendium Maleficarum, I. 19''), igneous, aerial, phlegmatic, earthly, and subterranean demons who avoid the light of day), and so he prescribed a continual suffumigation in the room. A new vessel, made of earthenware and glass, was accordingly introduced, and filled with sweet calamus, cubeb seed, roots of both aristolochies, great and small cardamom, ginger, long-pepper, caryophylleae, cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, calamite storax, benzoin, aloes-wood and roots, one ounce of fragrant sandal, and three quarts of half brandy and water; the vessel was then set on hot ashes in order to force forth and upwards the fumigating vapour, and the cell was kept closed. As soon as the suffumigation was done, the Incubus came, but never dared enter the cell."</ref> Even today, his formula of the incense is quoted by [[neopagan]] authors, some of whom also claim that cubeb can be used in love sachets and spells.

After the prohibition of sale, culinary use of cubeb dramatically decreased in Europe and only its medicinal application continued to the 19th century. In the early 20th century, cubeb was regularly shipped from Indonesia to Europe and the United States. The trade gradually diminished to an average of 135 ton annually, and practically ceased after 1940.<ref name="Weiss_1">{{Harv|Weiss|2002|p=180}}.</ref>

==Chemistry==
The dried cubeb berries contain essential oil consisting [[monoterpene]]s ([[sabinene]] 50%, α-thujene, [[carene]], 1,4-cineol and [[cineole|1,8-cineol]]) and [[sesquiterpene]]s ([[caryophyllene]], [[copaene]], α- and β-cubebene, δ-[[cadinene]], cubebol, [[germacrene]]).

About 15% of a [[volatile oil]] is obtained by [[distilling]] cubebs with water. '''Cubebene''', the liquid portion, has the formula C<sub>15</sub>H<sub>24</sub>. It is a pale green or blue-yellow viscous liquid with a warm woody, slightly camphoraceous odor.<ref name="Lawless_1">{{Harv|Lawless|1995|p=201}}</ref> After rectification with water, or on keeping, this deposits [[rhombic]] crystals of [[camphor]] of cubebs (C<sub>15</sub>H<sub>60</sub>).

'''Cubebin''' (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) is a crystalline substance existing in cubebs, discovered by [[Eugène Soubeiran]] and Capitaine in 1839. It may be prepared from cubebene, or from the pulp left after the distillation of the oil. The [[medication|drug]], along with [[natural gum|gum]], fatty oils, and [[malate]]s of [[magnesium]] and [[calcium]], contains also about 1% of cubebic acid, and about 6% of a [[resin]]. The dose of the fruit is 30 to 60 [[grain (measure)|grains]], and the [[British Pharmacopoeia]] contains a tincture with a dose of 4 to 1 [[avoirdupois|dram]].

==Use==
=== Medicinal ===
In India, Sanskrit texts included cubeb in various remedies. Charaka and Sushruta prescribed a paste of cubebs as a mouthwash, or dried cubebs internally for oral and dental diseases, loss of voice, [[halitosis]], fevers, cough. [[Unani]] physicians use a paste of the cubeb berries externally on male and female genitals to intensify sexual pleasure during coitus. Due to this attributed property cubebs were called "''Habb-ul-Uruus''".<ref name="Khare_1">{{Harv|Khare|2004|p=366}}</ref>

In [[traditional Chinese medicine]] cubeb is used for its alleged warming property. In [[Traditional Tibetan medicine|Tibetan medicine]], cubeb (''ka ko la'' in [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]]) is one of ''bzang po drug'', six fine herbs beneficial to specific organs in the body. Cubeb is assigned for the [[spleen]].<ref name="Stearns_1">{{Harv|Stearns|2000|p=194}}</ref>

The Arabian physicians in the [[Middle Ages]] were usually versed in [[alchemy]], and cubeb was used, under the name ''kababa'', when preparing the '''water of ''al butm'''''.<ref name="Patai_1">{{Harv|Patai|1995|p=215}}. "Take one pound of ''tarmantanita'', half a pound of honey of which the frost has been removed, one pound of ''[[aqua vita]]'', very fine Indian 'and, ''sandal'', in equal parts. Arab ''samg'', ''juz bawwa'', ''kholanjan'' root, '''''kababa''''', reed, ''mastaqi'', ''qaranfal'', ''sanbal'', of each three [[drachm]]s. They must be pounded well and put into a distilling vessel made of glass, and it must be well covered, and put on a gentle fire. And the first water which will come up will be pure... (snip) And know that the first is called 'the mother of medicine'."</ref> ''The Book of One Thousand and One Nights'', mentions cubeb as a main ingredient in making an aphrodisiac remedy for infertility:

<blockquote style="background-color:#F5F5DC; margin:20px; width:50em; padding:1em; clear:left">
He took two ounces of Chinese cubebs, one ounce of fat extract of Ionian [[hemp]], one ounce of fresh cloves, one ounce of red cinnamon from Sarandib, ten [[drachm]]s of white Malabar cardamoms, five of Indian ginger, five of white pepper, five of pimento from the isles, one ounce of the berries of Indian star-anise, and half an ounce of mountain thyme. Then he mixed cunningly, after having pounded and sieved them; he added pure honey until the whole became a thick paste; then he mingled five grains of musk and an ounce of pounded fish roe with the rest. Finally he added a little concentrated rose-water and put all in the bowel.<ref name="Mathers_2">{{Harv|Mathers|1990|p=97}}. [[Richard Francis Burton]] edition gives a different formulae: "So he gave it to him and the broker betook himself to a hashish-seller, of whom he bought two ounces of concentrated Roumi opium and equal-parts of Chinese cubebs, cinnamon, cloves, cardamoms, ginger, white pepper and [[Mountain Skink|mountain skink]]; and, pounding them all together, boiled them in [[Sweet Osmanthus|sweet olive]] oil; after which he added three ounces of male frankincense in fragments and a cupful of coriander-seed; and, macerating the whole, made it into an electuary with Roumi bee honey." ''Skink'' refers to a kind of lizard.</ref></blockquote>

The mixture, called "seed-thickener", is given to Shams-al-Din, a wealthy merchant who had no child, with the instruction that he must eat the paste two hours before having sexual intercourse with his wife. According to the story, the merchant did get the child he desired after following the instruction. Other Arab authors wrote that cubebs rendered the breath fragrant, cured affections of the bladder, and that eating cubebs "enhances the delight of coitus".<ref name="Adams_1">{{Harv|Adams|1847|p=456}}</ref>

In 1654, [[Nicholas Culpeper]] wrote in the ''London Dispensatorie'' that cubebs were "hot and dry in the third degree... (snip) they cleanse the head of [[flegm]] and strenghthen the brain, they heat the stomach and provoke lust".<ref name="Culpeper_1">{{Harv|Culpeper|1654|p=58}}</ref> A later edition in 1826 informed the reader that "the Arabs call them ''Quabebe'', and ''Quabebe Chine'': they grow plentifully in Java, they stir up venery. (snip) ...and are very profitable for cold griefs of the womb".

The modern employment of cubeb in [[England]] as a drug dates from [[1815]]. There were various preparations of cubebs including '''''oleum cubebae''''' (oil of cubebs), [[tincture]]s, fluid extracts, oleo-resin compounds and vapors, which was used for throat complaints. A small percentage of cubebs were commonly included in [[lozenge]]s designed for use in [[bronchitis]], in which the [[antiseptic]] and expectoral properties of the drug are useful. But the most important therapeutic application of this drug was in [[gonorrhea]], where its antiseptic action was of much value. [[William Wyatt]] Squire wrote in 1908 that cubebs "act specifically on genito-urinary [[mucous membrane]]. (They are) given in all stages of [[gonorrhea]]".<ref name="Squire_1">{{Harv|Squire|1908|p=462}}</ref> As compared with [[copaiba]] in this connection cubebs has the advantages of being less disagreeable to take and somewhat less likely to disturb the digestive apparatus in prolonged administration.

The volatile oil, ''oleum cubebae'', was the form in which cubeb is most commonly used as a drug, the dose being 5 to 20 [[minim (unit)|minim]]s, which may be suspended in [[mucilage]] or given after meals in a [[wafer (cooking)|wafer]]. The drug had the typical actions of a volatile oil, but exerted some of them in an exceptional degree — thus it was liable to cause a [[cutaneous]] [[erythema]] in the course of its excretion by the skin, had a marked [[diuretic]] action, and was a fairly efficient [[disinfectant]] of the [[urinary]] passages. Its administration caused the appearance in the urine of a salt of cubebic acid which was [[precipitate]]d by heat or [[nitric acid]], and was therefore liable to be mistaken for [[human serum albumin|albumin]], when these two most common tests for the occurrence of [[albuminuria]] were applied.

''The National Botanic Pharmacopoeia'' printed in 1921 tells that cubebs were "an excellent remedy for [[flour albus]] or whites."<ref name="Scurrah_1">{{Harv|Scurrah|1921|p=34}}</ref>

===Culinary===
In Europe, cubeb was one of the valuable spices during the Middle Age. It was ground as a [[seasoning]] for meat, or used in sauces. A medieval recipe includes cubeb in making "sauce sarcenes", which consists of [[almond milk]] and several spices.<ref name="Hieatt_1">{{Harv|Hieatt|1988}} "Make a thykke mylke of almondys, do hit in a pot with floure of rys, safron, gynger, macys, '''''quibibis''''', canel, sygure: and rynse the bottom of the disch with fat broth. Boyle the sewe byfore, and messe hit forth."</ref> Also as an aromatic confectionery, cubeb was often candied and eaten whole. Candied cubeb is mentioned in [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]'', set in 1940s:

<blockquote style="background-color:#F5F5DC; margin:20px; width:50em; padding:1em; clear:left">
Under its tamarind glaze, the [[Mills bomb]] turns out to be luscious pepsin-flavored nougat, chock-full of tangy candied cubeb berries, and a chewy camphor-gum center. It is unspeakably awful. Slothrop's head begins to reel with camphor fumes, his eyes are running, his tongue's a hopeless holocaust. Cubeb? He used to ''smoke'' that stuff. "Poisoned..." he is able to croak. </br>
"Show a little backbone," advises Mrs. Quoad.<ref name="Pynchon_1">{{Harv|Pynchon|1973|p=118}}</ref>
</blockquote>

Cubeb reached Africa through Arabs. In [[Moroccan cuisine]], cubeb is used in savory dishes and in pastries like ''markouts'', little diamonds of [[semolina]] with honey and dates.<ref name="Hal_2">{{Harv|Hal|2002|p=32}}</ref> Cubeb is sometimes included in the list of ingredients for the famed spice mixture ''[[Ras el hanout]]''. In [[West Africa]], cubeb turns up in dishes like stews of [[Benin]], where its use is so frequent it is referred to as ''piment pays'', pepper of the country.<ref name="Harris_1">{{Harv|Harris|1998|p=57}}</ref> In [[Indonesian cuisine]], especially in Indonesian gulés (curries), cubeb is used. Ocet Kubebowy, the [[vinegar]] infused with cubeb, cumin and garlic was used for meat [[marinade]]s in [[Poland]] during the 14th century.<ref name="Dembinska_1">{{Harv|Dembinska|1999|p=199}}</ref>

Cubeb makes a very good addition to savory soups.

===Cigarettes and spirits===
[[Image:CubebCigarettes.jpg|thumb|320px|A Victorian advertisement for ''Dr. Perrin's Medicated Cubeb Cigarettes''.]]
Cubebs were frequently used in the form of [[cigarette]]s for [[asthma]], chronic [[pharyngitis]] and [[hay fever]]. [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], being fond of smoking cubeb cigarettes, humorously stated that if he had not smoked so many cubebs, there might never have been ''[[Tarzan]]''. "Marshall's Prepared Cubeb Cigarettes" was a popular brand with enough sales to still be made during World War II.<ref name="Shaw_1">{{Harv|Shaw|1998}}.</ref> Sometimes [[marijuana]] users claimed that smoking marijuana is no more harmful than smoking cubeb.<ref name="Sloman_1">{{Harv|Sloman|1998|p=144}}</ref>

Cubeb oil was included in the [[list of additives in cigarettes|list of ingredients found in cigarettes]], published by Tobacco Prevention and Control Branch of NC Department of Health and Human Services.<ref>[http://www.stepupnc.com/know/ingredients.htm The list of ingredients found in cigarettes] Accessed February 11, 2006.</ref>

[[Bombay Sapphire]] gin is flavored with botanicals including cubebs and [[grains of paradise]]. The brand was launched in 1987, but its maker claims that it is based on a secret recipe dating to 1761. Pertsovka, a dark brown Russian pepper [[vodka]] with a burning taste, is prepared from infusion of cubeb and [[capsicum]] peppers.<ref name="Grossman_1">{{Harv|Grossman|1983|p=348}}</ref>

===Other===
Cubeb is sometimes used to [[adulterant|adulterate]] the [[essential oil]] of [[Patchouli]], which requires caution for Patchouli users.<ref name="Long_1">{{Harv|Long|2002|p=78}}</ref> In turn, cubeb is adulterated by ''Piper baccatum'' (also known as the "climbing pepper of Java") and ''Piper caninum''.<ref name="Seidemann_1">{{Harv|Seidemann|2005|p=290}}</ref>

Cubeb berries are used in love-drawing [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] spells by practitioners of [[hoodoo]], an African-American form of [[folk magic]].

In 2000, the well-known Japanese cosmetics company [[Shiseido]] [[patent]]ed formulas of anti-aging products made from several herbs including cubebs.<ref>[http://www.ratical.org/co-globalize/MaeWanHo/i-sisnews4.pdf Institute of Science in Society News, March 2000] (Accessed 27 February 2006)</ref>

In 2001, the Switzerland-based company [[Firmenich]] patented cubebol, a compound found in cubeb oil, as a cooling and refreshing agent.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.leffingwell.com/cooler_than_menthol.htm |title = Cool without Menthol & Cooler than Menthol and Cooling Compounds as Insect Repellents | first = John C., Ph.D | last = Leffingwell | publisher = Leffingwell & Associates | year = 2001 |accessdate = 2006-09-15}}</ref> The patent describes application of cubebol as a refreshing agent in various products, ranging from [[chewing gum]] to sorbet, drink, toothpaste, and
[[gelatin]]-based confectionery.<ref>{{US patent|6214788}}</ref>

== Notes ==
<div class="references-2column">
<references/>
</div>

==References==
<div class="references-2column">
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* {{1911}}
</div>

{{Herbs & spices}}
[[Category:African cuisine]]
[[Category:Arabic words and phrases]]
[[Category:Cigarette additives]]
[[Category:Flora of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Indonesian cuisine]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Medieval cuisine]]
[[Category:Peppers]]
[[Category:Piperaceae]]

Cubeb - Revision history

Envoy at 03:49, 13 September 2007