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{{featured article}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Black pepper
| image = Koeh-107.jpg
| image_width = 210px
| image_caption = Pepper plant with immature peppercorns
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Piperales]]
| familia = [[Piperaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Piper (genus)|Piper]]''
| species = '''''P. nigrum'''''
| binomial = ''Piper nigrum''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

'''Black pepper''' (''Piper nigrum'') is a [[flowering plant|flowering]] [[vine]] in the family [[Piperaceae]], cultivated for its [[fruit]], which is usually dried and used as a [[spice]] and [[seasoning]]. The same fruit is also used to produce '''white pepper''', '''red/pink pepper''', and '''green pepper'''.<ref>Green [[capsicum]] or bell pepper may also be called "green pepper"; it is an unrelated plant.</ref> Black pepper is native to [[South India]] and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. The fruit, known as a '''peppercorn''' when dried, is a small [[drupe]] five millimetres in diameter, dark red when fully mature, containing a single [[seed]].

Dried ground pepper is one of the most common spices in European [[cuisine]] and its descendants, having been known and prized since antiquity for both its flavour and its use as a [[medicine]]. The spiciness of black pepper is due to the chemical [[piperine]]. Ground black peppercorn, usually referred to simply as "pepper", may be found on nearly every dinner table in some parts of the world, often alongside [[edible salt|table salt]]. Pepper contains on average around 35-45% Sodium Chloride.{{fact|date=July 2007}}

The word "pepper" is derived from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] ''pippali'', the word for [[long pepper]]<ref>''Pippali'' is Sanskrit for [[long pepper]], also known as long pepper. Black pepper is ''marica''. Greek and Latin borrowed ''pippali'' to refer to either.</ref> via the [[Latin]] ''piper'' which was used by the Romans to refer both to pepper and long pepper, as the Romans erroneously believed that both of these spices were derived from the same plant. The English word for pepper is derived from the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''pipor''. The Latin word is also the source of [[German language|German]] ''pfeffer'', [[French language|French]] ''poivre'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''peper'', and other similar forms. In the 16th century, ''pepper'' started referring to the unrelated [[New World]] [[chile pepper]]s as well. "Pepper" was used in a figurative sense to mean "spirit" or "energy" at least as far back as the 1840s; in the early 20th century, this was shortened to ''pep''.<ref>Douglas Harper's ''Online Etymology Dictionary'' entries for [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=pepper ''pepper''] and [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=pep ''pep'']. Retrieved 13 November 2005.</ref>

==Varieties of pepper==
[[Image:Dried Peppercorns.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Black and white peppercorns]]
Black pepper is produced from the still-green unripe [[berry|berries]] of the pepper plant. The berries are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying. The heat ruptures [[cell wall]]s in the fruit, speeding the work of browning [[enzymes]] during drying. The berries are dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the fruit around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer. Once dried, the fruits are called black peppercorns.

White pepper consists of the seed only, with the fruit removed. This is usually accomplished by allowing fully ripe berries to soak in water for about a week, during which the flesh of the fruit softens and [[decomposition|decomposes]]. Rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Alternative processes are used for removing the outer fruit from the seed, including removal of the outer layer from black pepper produced from unripe berries.

In the U.S., white pepper is often used in dishes like light-coloured [[sauce]]s or [[ma
shed potatoes]], where ground black pepper would visibly stand out. There is disagreement regarding which is generally spicier. They do have differing flavours due to the presence of certain compounds in the outer fruit layer of the berry that are not found in the seed.

[[Image:Peppercorn-varieties.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Black, green, pink, and white peppercorns]]

[[Image:Spilled_Pepper.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An example of ground black pepper]]

Green pepper, like black, is made from the unripe berries. Dried green peppercorns are treated in a manner that retains the green colour, such as treatment with [[sulfur dioxide|sulphur dioxide]] or [[freeze-drying]]. Pickled peppercorns, also green, are unripe berries preserved in [[brine]] or [[vinegar]]. Fresh, unpreserved green pepper berries, largely unknown in the West, are used in some [[Asian cuisine]]s, particularly [[Thai cuisine]].<ref>See [http://www.templeofthai.com/cooking/thai-ingredient-glossary.php Thai Ingredients Glossary]. Retrieved 6 November 2005.</ref> Their flavor has been described as piquant and fresh, with a bright aroma.<ref>Ochef, [http://www.ochef.com/205.htm Using fresh green peppercorns]. Retrieved 6 November 2005.</ref> They decay quickly if not dried or preserved.

A rarely seen product called pink pepper or red pepper consists of ripe red pepper berries preserved in brine and vinegar. Even more rarely seen, ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving techniques used to produce green pepper.<ref>Katzer, Gernot (2006). [http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Pipe_nig.html Pepper]. Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages. Retrieved 12 August 2006.</ref> Pink pepper from ''Piper nigrum'' is distinct from the more-common dried "pink peppercorns", which are the fruits of a plant from a different family, the [[Peruvian pepper|Peruvian pepper tree]], ''Schinus molle'', and its relative the [[Brazilian pepper|Brazilian pepper tree]], ''Schinus terebinthifolius''. In years past there was debate as to the health safety of pink peppercorns, which is mostly no longer an issue.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Sichuan Pepper|Sichuan peppercorn]] is another "pepper" that is botanically unrelated to black pepper.  

Peppercorns are often categorised under a label describing their region or port of origin. Two well-known types come from [[India]]'s [[Malabar]] Coast: Malabar pepper and [[Tellicherry]] pepper. Tellicherry is a higher-grade pepper, made from the largest, ripest 10% of berries from Malabar plants grown on Mount Tellicherry.<ref>[http://www.penzeys.com/cgi-bin/penzeys/p-penzeyspeppercorns.html Peppercorns], from Penzey's Spices. Retrieved 17 October 2006.</ref>  [[Sarawak]] pepper is produced in the [[Malaysia|Malaysian]] portion of [[Borneo]], and [[Lampong]] pepper on [[Indonesia]]'s island of [[Sumatra]]. White [[Muntok]] pepper is another Indonesian product, from [[Bangka Island]].<ref>Pepper varieties information from [http://www.cookswares.com/discussions/peppercorns.asp A Cook's Wares].  Retrieved 6 November 2005.</ref>

==The pepper plant==

[[Image:Piper nigrum drawing 1832.jpg|left|thumb|''Piper nigrum'' from an 1832 print]]
The pepper plant is a [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[woody plant|woody]] [[vine]] growing to four metres in height on supporting [[tree]]s, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, [[root]]ing readily where trailing stems touch the ground. The [[leaf|leaves]] are alternate, entire, five to ten centimetres long and three to six centimetres broad. The [[flower]]s are small, produced on pendulous spikes four to eight centimetres long at the leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening to seven to 15 centimetres as the fruit matures.

Black pepper is grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to [[flood]]ing, moist, well-drained and rich in organic matter. The plants are propagated by cuttings about 40 to 50 centimetres long, tied up to neighbouring trees or climbing frames at distances of about two&nbsp;metres apart; trees with rough bark are favoured over those with smooth bark, as the pepper plants climb 
rough bark more readily. Competing plants are cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are covered in leaf [[mulch]] and [[manure]], and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry soils the young plants require watering every other day during the dry season for the first three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and typically continue to bear fruit for seven years. The cuttings are usually [[cultivar]]s, selected both for yield and quality of fruit.

A single stem will bear 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or two berries at the base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is mature, but when full grown and still hard; if allowed to ripen, the berries lose pungency, and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, then the peppercorns are stripped off the spikes.
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==History==
Pepper has been used as a spice in India since [[prehistory|prehistoric times]]. J. Innes Miller notes that while pepper was grown in southern [[Thailand]] and in Malaysia, its most important source was [[India]], particularly the [[Malabar Coast]], in what is now the state of [[Kerala]].<ref>J. Innes Miller, ''The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), p. 80</ref>  Peppercorns were a much prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form of [[commodity money]].  The term "[[peppercorn rent]]" still exists today.

The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of [[long pepper]], the dried fruit of closely related ''Piper longum''. The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as just "piper".  In fact, it was not until the discovery of the New World and of [[chile pepper]]s that the popularity of long pepper entirely declined. Chile peppers, some of which when dried are similar in shape and taste to long pepper, were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe.

Until well after the [[Middle Ages]], virtually all of the black pepper found in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa travelled there from India's Malabar region. By the 16th century, pepper was also being grown in [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Sunda Islands|Sunda]], [[Sumatra]], [[Madagascar]], Malaysia, and elsewhere in Southeast Asia, but these areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper locally.<ref>Dalby p. 93.</ref> Ports in the Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean.

Black pepper, along with other spices from India and lands farther east, changed the course of world history. It was in some part the preciousness of these spices that led to the European efforts to find a sea route to India and consequently to the European colonial occupation of that country, as well as the European discovery and colonization of the Americas. 

=== Ancient times ===
Black peppercorns were found lodged in the nostrils of [[Ramesses II]], placed there as part of the [[mummy|mummification]] rituals shortly after his death in 1213 BC. Little else is known about the use of pepper in [[ancient Egypt]], nor how it reached the [[Nile]] from India.

Pepper (both long and black) was known in Greece at least as early as the 4th century BC, though it was probably an uncommon and expensive item that only the very rich could afford.  Trade routes of the time were by land, or in ships which hugged the coastlines of the [[Arabian Sea]]. Long pepper, growing in the north-western part of India, was more accessible than the black pepper from further south; this trade advantage, plus long pepper's greater spiciness, probably made black pepper less popular at the time.

[[Image:Italy to India Route.PNG|right|frame|A possible trade route from Italy to south-west India]]

By the time of the early [[Roman Empire]], especially after Rome's conquest of Egypt in [[30 BC]], open-ocean crossing of the Arabian Sea directly to [[sou
thern India]]'s Malabar Coast was near routine. Details of this trading across the Indian Ocean have been passed down in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]''. According to the Roman geographer [[Strabo]], the early Empire sent a fleet of around 120 ships on an annual one-year trip to India and back. The fleet timed its travel across the Arabian Sea to take advantage of the  predictable [[monsoon]] winds. Returning from India, the ships travelled up the [[Red Sea]], from where the cargo was carried overland or via the [[Nile Canal]] to the Nile River, barged to [[Alexandria]], and shipped from there to Italy and Rome. The rough geographical outlines of this same trade route would dominate the pepper trade into Europe for a millennium and a half to come.

With ships sailing directly to the Malabar coast, black pepper was now travelling a shorter trade route than long pepper, and the prices reflected it. [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' tells us the prices in Rome around 77 [[Common era|AD]]: "Long pepper ... is fifteen [[denarius|denarii]] per pound, while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four." Pliny also complains "there is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of fifty million [[sesterces]]," and further moralises on pepper:
<blockquote>It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being a certain pungency; and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite? (''N.H.'' 12.14)<ref>From Bostock and Riley's 1855 translation. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137&query=head%3D%23741 Text online].</ref></blockquote>

Black pepper was a well-known and widespread, if expensive, seasoning in the [[Roman Empire]]. [[Apicius]]' [[De re coquinaria]], a 3rd-century cookbook probably based at least partly on one from the 1st century CE, includes pepper in a majority of its recipes. [[Edward Gibbon]] wrote, in ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', that pepper was "a favourite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery".

=== Postclassical Europe ===
Pepper was so valuable that it was often used as [[collateral (finance)|collateral]] or even currency. The taste for pepper (or the appreciation of its monetary value) was passed on to those who would see Rome fall. It is said that [[Alaric I|Alaric]] the [[Visigoths|Visigoth]] and [[Attila the Hun]] each demanded from [[Rome]] a ransom of more than a ton of pepper when they besieged the city in 5th century. After the fall of Rome, others took over the middle legs of the [[spice trade]], first the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] and then the [[Arab]]s; Innes Miller cites the account of [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]], who travelled east to India, as proof that "pepper was still being exported from India in the sixth century".<ref>Innes Miller, ''The Spice Trade'', p. 83</ref> By the end of the [[Dark Ages]], the central portions of the spice trade were firmly under [[Islamic]] control. Once into the Mediterranean, the trade was largely monopolised by Italian powers, especially [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]]. The rise of these [[city-state]]s was funded in large part by the spice trade.

A [[riddle]] authored by [[Saint Aldhelm]], a 7th-century [[Bishop of Sherborne]], sheds some light on black pepper's role in [[England]] at that time:

:I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover,
:Yet within I bear a burning marrow.
:I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table, 
:Both the sauces and the tenderized meats 
of the kitchen.
:But you will find in me no quality of any worth,
:Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow.<ref>Translation from Turner, p 94. The riddle's answer is of course ''pepper''.</ref>

It is commonly believed that during the [[Middle Ages]], pepper was used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat. There is no evidence to support this claim, and historians view it as highly unlikely: in the Middle Ages, pepper was a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available as well.<ref>Dalby p. 156; also Turner pp. 108–109, though Turner does go on to discuss spices (not pepper specifically) being used to disguise the taste of partially spoiled wine or ale.</ref> Similarly, the belief that pepper was widely used as a preservative is questionable: it is true that piperine, the compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties, but at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small.<ref>{{cite journal | author=H. J. D. Dorman and S. G. Deans | title=Antimicrobial agents from plants: antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils | journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology | year=2000 | volume=88 Issue 2 | pages=308}}. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2000.00969.x Full text at Blackwell website; purchase required]. "Spices, which are used as integral ingredients in cuisine or added as flavouring agents to foods, are present in insufficient quantities for their antimicrobial properties to be significant."</ref> Salt is a much more effective preservative, and [[salt-cured meat]]s were common fare, especially in winter. However, pepper and other spices probably did play a role in improving the taste of long-preserved meats.

[[Image:Calicut_1572.jpg|left|thumb|350px|A depiction of [[Kozhikode|Calicut, India]] published in 1572 during Portugal's control of the pepper trade]]

Its exorbitant price during the Middle Ages &mdash; and the monopoly on the trade held by Italy &mdash; was one of the inducements which led the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] to seek a sea route to India. In 1498, [[Vasco da Gama]] became the first European to reach India by sea; asked by Arabs in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] (who spoke Spanish and Italian) why they had come, his representative replied, "we seek Christians and spices." Though this first trip to India by way of the southern tip of [[Africa]] was only a modest success, the Portuguese quickly returned in greater numbers and used their superior naval firepower to eventually gain complete control of trade on the Arabian sea. This was the start of the first European empire in Asia, given additional legitimacy (at least from a European perspective) by the 1494 [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], which granted Portugal exclusive rights to the half of the world where black pepper originated.

The Portuguese proved unable to maintain their stranglehold on the spice trade for long. The old Arab and Venetian trade networks successfully smuggled enormous quantities of spices through the patchy Portuguese blockade, and pepper once again flowed through Alexandria and Italy, as well as around Africa. In the 17th century, the Portuguese lost almost all of their valuable Indian Ocean possessions to the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and the [[England|English]]. The pepper ports of Malabar fell to the Dutch in the period 1661&ndash;1663.

As pepper supplies into Europe increased, the price of pepper declined (though the total value of the import trade generally did not). Pepper, which in the early Middle Ages had been an item exclusively for the rich, started to become more of an everyday seasoning among those of more average means. Today, pepper accounts for one-fifth of the world's spice trade.<ref>Jaffee p. 10.</ref>

===China===
It is possible that black pepper was known in [[China]] in the 2nd century BC, if poetic reports regarding an explorer named Tang Meng (唐蒙) are correct. Sent by [[Emperor Wu of Han China|Emperor Wu]] to what is now south-west China, Tang Meng is said to have come a
cross something called ''jujiang'' or "sauce-betel". He was told it came from the markets of [[Shu (state)|Shu]], an area in what is now the [[Sichuan]] province. The traditional view among historians is that "sauce-betel" is a sauce made from [[betel]] leaves, but arguments have been made that it actually refers to pepper, either long or black.<ref>Dalby pp. 74–75. The argument that ''jujiang'' was long pepper goes back to the 4th century CE botanical writings of Ji Han; Hui-lin Li's 1979 translation of and commentary on Ji Han's work makes the case that it was ''piper nigrum''.</ref>

In the 3rd century CE, black pepper made its first definite appearance in Chinese texts, as ''hujiao'' or "foreign pepper". It does not appear to have been widely known at the time, failing to appear in a 4th-century work describing a wide variety of spices from beyond China's southern border, including long pepper.<ref>Dalby p. 77.</ref> By the 12th century, however, black pepper had become a popular ingredient in the cuisine of the wealthy and powerful, sometimes taking the place of China's native [[Sichuan Pepper|Sichuan pepper]] (the tongue-numbing dried fruit of an unrelated plant).

[[Marco Polo]] testifies to pepper's popularity in 13th-century China when he relates what he is told of its consumption in the city of Kinsay ([[Zhejiang]]): "... Messer Marco heard it stated by one of the Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43&nbsp;loads, each load being equal to 223&nbsp;lbs."<ref>Translation from ''The Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule-Cordier Edition, Vol. 2'', Dover. ISBN 0-486-27587-6. p. 204.</ref> Marco Polo is not considered a very reliable source regarding China, and this second-hand data may be even more suspect, but if this estimated 10,000&nbsp;pounds (4,500&nbsp;kg) a day for one city is anywhere near the truth, China's pepper imports may have dwarfed Europe's.

===Pepper as a medicine===
[[Image:alice pig and pepper.png|right|thumb|250px|'''There's certainly too much pepper in that soup!' Alice said to herself, as well as she could for sneezing.'' &mdash; ''[[Alice in Wonderland]]'' (1865). Chapter VI: Pig and Pepper. Note the cook's pepper mill.]]
Like all eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a medicine. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used.

Black peppercorns figure in remedies in [[Ayurveda]], [[Siddha]] and [[Unani]] medicine in [[India]]. The 5th century ''Syriac Book of Medicines'' prescribes pepper (or perhaps long pepper) for such illnesses as [[constipation]], [[diarrhea]], [[earache]], [[gangrene]], [[heart disease]], [[hernia]], hoarseness, [[indigestion]], insect bites, [[insomnia]], joint pain, [[liver]] problems, [[lung]] disease, oral [[abscess]]es, [[sunburn]], [[tooth decay]], and [[toothache]]s.<ref>Turner p. 160.</ref> Various sources from the 5th century onward also recommend pepper to treat eye problems, often by applying salves or poultices made with pepper directly to the eye. There is no current medical evidence that any of these treatments has any benefit; pepper applied directly to the eye would be quite uncomfortable and possibly damaging.<ref>Turner p. 171.</ref>

Pepper has long been believed to cause [[sneeze|sneezing]]; this is still believed true today. Some sources say that piperine irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing;<ref>U.S. Library of Congress Science Reference Services "Everyday Mysteries", [http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/pepper.html Why does pepper make you sneeze?]. Retrieved November 12, 2005.</ref> some say that it is just the effect of the fine dust in ground pepper, and some say that pepper is not in fact a very effective sneeze-producer at all. Few if any controlled studies  have been carried out to answer the question. 

Pepper is eliminated from the diet of patients having abdominal surgery and ulcers because of its irritating effect upon the intestines, being replaced by what is referred 
to as a bland diet.

Pepper is sometimes used to stop light bleeding in restaurant kitchens.

==Flavor==
[[Image:Pfeffermühle.jpg|left|thumb|80px|A handheld pepper mill]]
[[Image:Pepper corns closeup.jpg|thumb|Black pepper corns.]]
Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from the [[piperine]] compound, which is found both in the outer fruit and in the seed. Refined piperine, milligram-for-milligram, is about one per cent as hot as the [[capsaicin]] in chile peppers. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains important odour-contributing [[terpene]]s including [[pinene]], [[sabinene]], [[limonene]], [[caryophyllene]], and [[linalool]], which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, which is stripped of the fruit layer. White pepper can gain some different odours (including musty notes) from its longer fermentation stage.<ref>McGee p. 428.</ref>

Pepper loses flavour and aroma through evaporation, so airtight storage helps preserve pepper's original spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose flavour when exposed to light, which can transform piperine into nearly tasteless [[isochavicine]].<ref>''ibid''.</ref> Once ground, pepper's aromatics can evaporate quickly; most culinary sources recommend grinding whole peppercorns immediately before use for this reason. Handheld pepper mills (or "pepper grinders"), which mechanically grind or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this, sometimes instead of pepper shakers, dispensers of pre-ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper mills were found in European kitchens as early as the 14th century, but the [[mortar and pestle]] used earlier for crushing pepper remained a popular method for centuries after as well.<ref>{{cite book | author=Montagne, Prosper | title=Larousse Gastronomique | publisher=Hamlyn | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-600-60235-4 | pages=726}} "Mill".</ref>
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==World trade==
Peppercorns are, by monetary value, the most widely traded spice in the world, accounting for 20 percent of all spice imports in 2002. The price of pepper can be volatile, and this figure fluctuates a great deal year to year; for example, pepper made up 39 percent of all spice imports in 1998.<ref>Jaffee p. 12, table 2.</ref> By weight, slightly more chile peppers are traded worldwide than peppercorns. The [[International Pepper Exchange]] is located in [[Kochi, India]].

[[Vietnam]] has recently become the world's largest producer and exporter of pepper (85,000&nbsp;[[long ton]]s in 2003). Other major producers include Indonesia (67,000&nbsp;tons), India (65,000&nbsp;tons), [[Brazil]] (35,000&nbsp;tons), Malaysia (22,000&nbsp;tons), Sri Lanka (12,750&nbsp;tons), Thailand, and China. Vietnam dominates the export market, using almost none of its production domestically. In 2003, Vietnam exported 82,000&nbsp;tons of pepper, Indonesia 57,000&nbsp;tons, Brazil 37,940&nbsp;tons, Malaysia 18,500&nbsp;tons, and India&nbsp;17,200 tons.<ref>Data from [http://www.mcxindia.com/products_Pepper.html Multi Commodity Exchange of India, Ltd.] Retrieved 6 November 2005.</ref>

==Notes==
{{commons|Piper nigrum}}
{{cookbook|Pepper}}
<div class="references-small">
<references />
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==References==
<div class="references-small">
*Dalby, Andrew ([[October 1]], [[2002]]). [http://print.google.com/print?hl=en&id=7IHcZ21dyjwC&dq=black+pepper+long+pepper&prev=http://print.google.com/print%3Fhl%3Den%26lr%3D%26ie%3DUTF-8%26q%3Dblack%2Bpepper%2Blong%2Bpepper%26btnG%3DSearch&lpg=PA90&pg=PA89&sig=FvKr3MxwTnzkahYe5RfZb4bbrck Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices], 89. Google Print. ISBN 0-520-23674-2 (accessed [[October 25]], [[2005]]). Also available in print from University of California Press.
*{{cite book | author=Turner, Jack | title=Spice: The History of a Temptation | publisher=Vintage Books | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-375-70705-0}}
*{{cite book | author=McGee, Harold | title=On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition) | publisher=Scribner | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-684-80001-2 | pages=427–429}} "Black Pepper and Relatives".
*Jaffee, Steven (2004). [http://si
teresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETTRADE/Resources/Topics/Standards/IndiaSpices.pdf Delivering and Taking the Heat: Indian Spices and Evolving Process Standards (.pdf)]. An Agriculture and Rural Development Discussion Paper from the [[World Bank]].
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*Trujotic WW.

==Further reading==
*[http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=74 Nutritional benefits of Black Pepper]
*[http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Pipe_nig.html Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages]
*[http://www.plantcultures.org.uk/plants/black_pepper_landing.html Plant Cultures: History and botany of black pepper in South Asia]

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