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[[Image:504px-Pinguiculagrandiflora1web.jpg|thumb|''[[Pinguicula grandiflora]]'' commonly known as a [[Butterwort]]]] [[Image:Stem-cross-section.jpg|thumb|Example of a cross section of a stem <ref>[http://www.hydroponicist.com Winterborne J, 2005. ''Hydroponics - Indoor Horticulture'']</ref>]] '''Botany''', '''plant science(s)''', '''phytology''', or '''plant biology''' is a branch of [[biology]] and is the [[Scientific method|scientific study]] of plant [[life]] and development. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study [[plant]]s, [[algae]], and [[fungi]] including: [[Plant anatomy|structure]], [[cell growth|growth]], [[reproduction]], [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|development]], [[phytopathology|diseases]], chemical properties, and evolutionary relationships between the different groups. Botany began with early human efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences. From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 [[species]] of living organisms. ==Scope and importance of botany== [[Image:Beli-hibiskus.jpg|left|thumb|[[Hibiscus]]]]As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the [[molecular biology|molecular]], [[genetics|genetic]] and [[biochemistry|biochemical]] level through [[organelle]]s, [[cell biology|cells]], [[biological tissue|tissues]], [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], individuals, plant [[population]]s, and communities of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification ([[taxonomy]]), structure ([[Plant anatomy|anatomy]] and [[Plant morphology|morphology]]), or function ([[Plant physiology|physiology]]) of plant life. Historically all living things were grouped as animals or plants,<ref>{{Cite book | author=Chapman, Jasmin, et al.| authorlink= | coauthors= | title=Science Web | date= | publisher=Nelson Thornes | location= | isbn=0-17-438746-6 | pages=56}}</ref> and botany covered all organisms not considered [[animal]]s. Some organisms once included in the field of botany are no longer considered to belong to the plant [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] &ndash; these include [[fungi]] (studied in [[mycology]]), [[lichen]]s ([[lichenology]]), [[bacterium|bacteria]] ([[bacteriology]]), [[viruses]] ([[virology]]) and single-celled [[alga]]e, which are now grouped as part of the [[Protista]]. However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi, lichens, bacteria and [[Photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses. The study of plants is vital because they are a fundamental part of [[life on Earth]], which generates the [[oxygen]], [[food]], [[fibre]]s, fuel and [[medicine]] that allow humans and other life forms to exist. Through [[photosynthesis]], plants absorb [[carbon dioxide]], a [[greenhouse gas]] that in large amounts can affect global climate. Additionally, they prevent [[soil erosion]] and are influential in the [[water cycle]]. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to: * Produce food to feed an expanding population * Understand fundamental life processes * Produce medicine and materials to treat diseases and other ailments * Understand environmental changes more clearly [[paleobotany|Paleobotanists]] study ancient plants in the fossil record. It is believed that early in the Earth's history, the evolution of photosynthetic plants altered the global [[atmosphere]] of the earth, changing the ancient atmosphere by [[oxidation]]. ===Human nutrition=== [[Image:US long grain rice.jpg|right|thumb|Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain [[rice]]]] Virtually all foods eaten come from plants, either directly from [[staple food]]s and other [[fruit]] and [[vegetables]], or indirectly through [[livestock]] or other animals, which rely on plants for their nutrition. Plants are the fundamental base of nearly all [[food chain]]s because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be consumed and utilized by animals; this is what ecologists call the first [[trophic level]]. Botanists also study how plants produce food we can eat and how to increase yields and therefore their work is important in mankind's ability to feed the world and provide [[food security]] for future generations, for example, through [[plant breeding]]. Botanists also study [[weed]]s, plants which are considered to be a nuisance in a particular location. Weeds are a considerable problem in [[agriculture]], and botany provides some of the basic science used to understand how to minimize 'weed' impact in agriculture and native ecosystems. [[Ethnobotany]] is the study of the relationships between plants and people. ===Fundamental life processes=== Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like [[cell division]] and [[protein synthesis]]) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The [[Mendelian inheritance|genetic laws of inheritance]] were discovered in this way by [[Gregor Mendel]], who was studying the way [[peas|pea]] shape is inherited. What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, [[Barbara McClintock]] discovered '[[transposon|jumping genes']] by studying [[maize]]. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes. ===Medicine and materials=== Many [[medication|medicinal]] and [[recreational drugs]], like [[tetrahydrocannabinol]], [[caffeine]], and [[nicotine]] come directly from the plant kingdom. Others are simple [[Derivative (chemistry)|derivatives]] of botanical natural products; for example, [[aspirin]] is based on the pain killer [[salicylic acid]] which originally came from the [[bark]] of [[willow]] trees. As well, the [[narcotic]] [[analgesics]] such as [[morphine]] are derived from the [[opium poppy]].<ref name=JMannSecondaryMetabolism>{{cite book | last = Mann | first = J. | title = Secondary Metabolism, 2nd ed. | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1987 | location = Oxford | pages = 186–187 | isbn = 0-19-855529-6}}</ref> There may be many [[drug discovery|novel cures for diseases]] provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular [[stimulant]]s like [[coffee]], [[chocolate]], [[tobacco]], and [[tea]] also come from plants. Most [[alcoholic beverage]]s come from [[fermentation (food)|fermenting]] plants such as [[barley]] ([[beer]]), [[rice]] ([[sake]]) and [[grapes]] ([[wine]]). Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as [[hemp]], [[cotton]], [[wood]], [[paper]], [[linen]], [[vegetable oil]]s, some types of [[rope]], and [[rubber]]. The production of [[silk]] would not be possible without the cultivation of the [[mulberry]] plant. [[Sugarcane]], [[rapeseed]], [[soy]] and other plants with a highly-fermentable sugar or oil content have recently been put to use as sources of [[biofuel]]s, which are important alternatives to [[fossil fuel]]s (see [[biodiesel]]). ===Environmental changes=== Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways. *Understanding [[habitat destruction]] and [[endangered species|species extinction]] is dependent on an accurate and complete catalog of plant [[systematics]] and taxonomy. *Plant responses to [[ultraviolet|ultraviolet radiation]] can help us monitor problems like [[ozone depletion]]. *[[palynology|Analyzing pollen]] deposited by plants [[geologic timescale|thousands or millions of years ago]] can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of [[climate change]] research. *Recording and analyzing the timing of plant [[biological life cycle|life cycles]] are important parts of [[phenology]] used in climate-change research. *[[Lichens]], which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extensively used as [[pollution]] indicators. In many different ways, plants can act a little like the '[[canary|miners' canary']], an early warning system alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy [[gardening]], [[horticulture|horticultural]] and [[herb|culinary]] uses of plants every day. ==Etymology== From [[Greek language|Greek]] βοτάνη = "[[pasture]], [[grass]], [[fodder]]", perhaps via the idea of a [[livestock]] keeper needing to know which plants are safe for livestock to eat. ==History== {{Main|History of botany}} [[Image:Botany.jpg|thumb|right|The traditional tools of a botanist]] ===Early botany=== ;Ancient India Early examples of plant taxonomy occur in the [[Rigveda]], that divides plants into ''Vṛska'' (tree), ''Osadhi'' (herbs useful to humans) and ''Virudha'' (creepers), which are then further subdivided. The [[Atharvaveda]] divides plants into eight classes, ''Visakha'' (spreading branches), ''Manjari'' (leaves with long clusters), ''Sthambini'' (bushy plants), ''Prastanavati'' (which expands); ''Ekasṛnga'' (those with [[monopodial]] growth), ''Pratanavati'' (creeping plants), ''Amsumati'' (with many stalks), and ''Kandini'' (plants with knotty joints). The [[Taittiriya Samhita]] classifies the plant kingdom into ''vṛksa'', ''vana'' and ''druma'' (trees), ''visakha'' (shrubs with spreading branches), ''sasa'' (herbs), ''amsumali'' (a spreading or [[deliquescent]] plant), ''vratati'' (climber), ''stambini'' (bushy plant), ''pratanavati'' (creeper), and ''alasala'' (those spreading on the ground). [[Manusmriti]] – Law book of [[Hindu]]s – proposed a classification of plants in eight major categories. [[Charaka Samhitā]] and [[Sushruta Samhita]] and the [[Vaisesika]]s also present an elaborate taxonomy. [[Parashara]], the author of ''Vṛksayurveda'' (the science of life of trees), classifies plants into Dvimatrka ([[Dicotyledon]]s) and Ekamatrka ([[Monocotyledon]]s). These are further classified into ''Samiganiya'' ([[Fabaceae]]), ''Puplikagalniya'' ([[Rutaceae]]), ''Svastikaganiya'' ([[Cruciferae]]), ''Tripuspaganiya'' ([[Cucurbitaceae]]), ''Mallikaganiya'' ([[Apocynaceae]]), and ''Kurcapuspaganiya'' ([[Asteraceae]]).<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_tiwar_botany_frameset.htm Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Important medieval Indian works of plant physiology include the ''Prthviniraparyam'' of [[Udayana]], ''Nyayavindutika'' of Dharmottara, ''Saddarsana-samuccaya'' of Gunaratna, and ''Upaskara'' of Sankaramisra.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> ;Ancient China In [[ancient China]], the recorded listing of different plants and herb concoctions for [[pharmaceutical]] purposes spans back to at least the [[Warring States]] (481 BC-221 BC). Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of herbal pharmaceutics. There was the [[Han Dynasty]] (202 BC-220 AD) written work of the [[Huangdi Neijing]] and the famous pharmacologist [[Zhang Zhongjing]] of the 2nd century. There was also the 11th century scientists and statesmen [[Su Song]] and [[Shen Kuo]], who compiled treatises on herbal medicine and included the use of [[mineralogy]]. ;Greco-Roman world Among the earliest of botanical works in Europe, written around [[300 B.C.]], are two large treatises by [[Theophrastus]]: ''On the History of Plants'' (''[[Historia Plantarum]]'') and ''On the Causes of Plants''. Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. [[Aristotle]] also wrote about plants. One theory about plants that Greco-Romans came up with about plants was that they ate soil for [[nutrients]].<ref>[http://science.jrank.org/pages/996/Botany.html Botany - History of botany]</ref> The Roman medical writer [[Pedanius Dioscorides]] (ca.40-90) provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants. Dioscorides is famous for writing a five volume book in his native [[Greek language|Greek]] Περί ύλης ιατρικής (''De [[Materia Medica]]'' - in the Latin translation) that is one of the most influential [[herbal]] books in history. In fact, it remained in use until about CE 1600.<ref>[http://www.medhunters.com/articles/timelinePedaniusDioscorides.html Timeline: Pedanius Dioscorides, c. 40–90 CE]</ref> Approximately 1300-1400 different plant species were known under [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] reign.<ref>[http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e01/01.htm Botany online: The History of a Science]</ref> ===Medieval botany=== The [[Persian people|Persian]] biologist [[Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī]] (828-896) is considered the founder of [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Agricultural sciences|Arabic botany]] for his ''Book of Plants'', in which he described at least 637 plants and discussed [[Plant morphology #Plant development|plant development]] from germination to death, describing the phases of [[plant growth]] and the production of flowers and fruit.<ref name=Fahd-815>{{Cite journal|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=815}}, in {{Citation |last1=Morelon |first1=Régis |last2=Rashed |first2=Roshdi |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107}}</ref> Theophrastus’s ''[[Historia Plantarum]]'' served as a reference point in botany for many centuries, and was further developed around [[1200]] by Giovanni Bodeo da Stapelio, who added a ''commentarius'' and drawings: see [http://www.abocamuseum.it/uk/bibliothecaantiqua/Book_View.asp?Id_Book=161&Display=E Historia Plantarum]'' &mdash;Selected pages of a 17th century edition of the 1200 version (in Italian). In the early 13th century, the [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]]-[[Arab]]ian biologist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati developed an early [[scientific method]] for botany, introducing [[empirical]] and [[experiment]]al techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous [[materia medica]], and separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and [[observation]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Toby |last=Huff |year=2003 |title=The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West |page=218 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521529948 |pages=813–852}}</ref> His student [[Ibn al-Baitar]] (d. 1248) wrote a [[Pharmacy|pharmaceutical]] encyclopedia describing 1,400 [[plant]]s, [[food]]s, and [[drug]]s, 300 of which were his own original discoveries. A [[Latin]] translation of his work was useful to European biologists and pharmacists in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>Boulanger, Diane (2002) "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", ''OISE Papers'', in ''STSE Education'', Vol. 3.</ref> ===Early modern botany=== [[Image:H J N Crantz Classis cruciformium.jpg|thumb|[[Crantz]]'s ''Classis cruciformium...'', 1769]] [[Germany|German]] physician [[Leonhart Fuchs]] (1501–1566) was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with [[Otto Brunfels]] (1489- 1534) and [[Hieronymus Bock]] (1498–1554) (also called Hieronymus Tragus).<ref>[http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/852/?article_id=131 Early herbals – The German fathers of botany]</ref> [[Valerius Cordus]] (1515–1554) authored one of the greatest [[pharmacopoeia]]s and one of the most celebrated [[herbal]]s in history, ''Dispensatorium'' (1546).<ref>[http://www.bookrags.com/research/valerius-cordus-scit-0312/ Valerius Cordus | Science and Its Times: 1450-1699 Summary]</ref> As early as the 16th century, the Italian [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]] was scientifically researching plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, [[Robert Hooke]] discovered [[cell (biology)|cells]] in [[cork (material)|cork]], and a short time later in living plant tissue. The [[Germans]] [[Jacob Theodor Klein]] and [[Leonhart Fuchs]], the Swiss [[Conrad von Gesner]], and the British author [[Nicholas Culpeper]] published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants. During the 18th century systems of classification became deliberately artificial and served only for the purpose of [[identification]]. These classifications are comparable to diagnostic keys, where taxa are artificially grouped in pairs by few, easily recognisable characters. The sequence of the taxa in keys is often totally unrelated to their natural or phyletic groupings. In the 18th century an increasing number of new plants had arrived in Europe, from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide, and a larger amount of plants became available for study. In 1754 [[Carolus Linnaeus|Carl von Linné]] (Carl Linnaeus) divided the plant Kingdom into 25 classes. One, the ''Cryptogamia'', included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).<ref name="Hoek, Mann and Jahns 95">Hoek, C. van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. 2005. ''[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xuUoiFesSHMC&printsec=frontcover Algae: An Introduction to Phycology]''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0 521 30419 9</ref> The increased knowledge on anatomy, morphology and life cycles, lead to the realization that there were more natural affinities between plants, than the sexual system of Linnaeus indicated. [[Adanson]] (1763), [[Jussieu]] (1789), and [[Candolle]] (1819) all proposed various alternative natural systems that were widely followed. The ideas of [[natural selection]] as a mechanism for [[evolution]] required adaptations to the [[Candollean system]], which started the studies on evolutionary relationships and [[phylogenetic classification]]s of plants. ===Modern botany=== A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying [[model organisms|model plants]] like ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''. This weedy species in the mustard family was one of the first plants to have its [[genome]] sequenced. The sequencing of the [[rice]] (''Oryza sativa'') genome, its relatively small genome, and a large international research community have made rice an important [[cereal]]/[[grass]]/[[monocot]] model.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.2307/3870991 | title = Genome Relationships: The Grass Model in Current Research | year = 2000 | author = Devos, Katrien M. | journal = The Plant Cell | volume = 12 | pages = 637 | url = http://www.plantcell.org/cgi/content/full/12/5/637 | format = free full text | pmid = 10810140 | last2 = Gale | first2 = MD | issue = 5 | pmc = 139917 }}</ref> Another grass species, ''[[Brachypodium distachyon]]'' is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially-important staple foods like [[wheat]], [[maize]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[pearl millet]] and [[soybean]] are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two [[haploid]] (n) sets of [[chromosome]]s, a condition known as [[polyploid]]y, common in the plant kingdom. ''[[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]]'' (a single-celled, green [[Algae|alga]]) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology. In 1998 the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] published a [[phylogeny]] of flowering plants based on an analysis of [[DNA]] sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, major questions such as which families represent the earliest branches in the genealogy of [[angiosperms]] are now understood. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants. ==Subdisciplines of botany== {| |valign="top"| *[[Agronomy]] — Application of plant science to crop production *[[Bryology]] — Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts *[[Economic botany]] — Study of plants of economic use or value *[[Ethnobotany]] — Relationship between humans and plants *[[Forestry]] — Forest management and related studies *[[Horticulture]] — Cultivated plants *[[Lichenology]] — The study of lichens *[[Paleobotany]] — Fossil plants *[[Palynology]] — Pollen and spores |valign="top"| *[[Phycology]] — Algae *[[Phytochemistry]] — Plant secondary chemistry and chemical processes *[[Phytopathology]] — Plant diseases *[[Plant anatomy]] — Cell and tissue structure *[[Plant ecology]] — Role of plants in the environment *[[Plant genetics]] — Genetic inheritance in plants *[[Plant morphology]] — Structure and life cycles *[[Plant physiology]] — Life functions of plants *[[Plant taxonomy|Plant systematics]] — Classification and naming of plants |} ==Notable botanists== {{see|List of botanists}} *[[Ibn al-Baitar]] (d. 1248), Andalusian-Arab scientist, botanist, pharmacist, physician, and author of one of the largest botanical encyclopedias. *[[Aimé Bonpland]] (1773–1858), French explorer and botanist, who accompanied [[Alexander von Humboldt]] during five years of travel in Latin America. *[[Luther Burbank]] (1849–1926), American botanist, horticulturist, and a pioneer in agricultural science. * [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle]] He originated the idea of "Nature's war", which influenced [[Charles Darwin]]. * [[Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī]] (828-896), Persian botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer, mathematician, and founder of [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Agricultural sciences|Arabic botany]]. *[[David Douglas]] (1799–1834), Scottish botanical explorer of North America and China, who imported many ornamental plants into Europe. *[[Joseph Dalton Hooker]] (1817–1911), English botanist and explorer. Second winner of [[Darwin Medal]]. *[[Thomas Henry Huxley]] (1825–1895), English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of evolution. Third winner of [[Darwin Medal]]. *[[Carl Linnaeus]] (1707–1778), Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. *[[Gregor Johann Mendel]] (1822–1884), Augustinian priest and scientist, and is often called the father of [[genetics]] for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. *[[Carlos Muñoz Pizarro]], Chilean botanist, known for his studies of the Chilean flora, and its conservation. *[[Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati]] (c. 1200), Andalusian-Arab botanist and agricultural scientist, and a pioneer in experimental botany. *[[Richard Spruce]] (1817–1893), English botanist and explorer who carried out a detailed study of the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazon]] flora. *[[Agustín Stahl]] (1842–1917), conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of [[ethnology]], and [[zoology]] in the Caribbean region. * [[George Ledyard Stebbins, Jr.]] Widely regarded as one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century, developed a comprehensive synthesis of plant evolution incorporating genetics. * [[Theophrastus]] (c. 371 – c. 287 BC) - Father of Botany, established botanical science through his lecture notes, ''Enquiry into Plants''. *[[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519), Italian polymath; a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician and writer. ==See also== {{main|Outline of botany}} <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * [[Botanical garden]] and [[List of botanical gardens]] * [[Dendrochronology]] * [[Edible Flowers]] * [[Flower]]s and [[List of flowers]] * [[Forestry]] * [[Herb]]s * [[History of plant systematics]] * [[History of phycology]] * [[List of botanical journals]] * [[List of botanists]] * [[List of botanists by author abbreviation]] * [[List of publications in biology]] * [[List of domesticated plants]] * [[List of systems of plant taxonomy]] * [[Paleobotany]] * [[Palynology]] * [[Plant anatomy]] * [[Plant community]] * [[Plant physiology]] * [[Plant sexuality]] * [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Seeds Seeds] * [[Soil science]] * [[Tree]]s * [[Vegetation]] * [[Weed Science]] * [[Zoology]] </div> ==References== Source of this page: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany Wikipedia Botany article] ===Notes=== {{Reflist}} ===Bibliography=== ====Popular science==== * [[David Attenborough|Attenborough, David]] ''[[The Private Life of Plants]]'', ISBN 0-563-37023-8 * [[David Bellamy|Bellamy, David]] ''Bellamy on Botany'', ISBN 0-563-10666-2 An accessible and short introduction to various botanical subjects * Capon, B: ''Botany for Gardeners'' ISBN 0-88192-655-8 * Cohen, J. ''How many people can the earth support?'' London: W. W. Norton 1995 ISBN 0-393-31495-2 * Halle, Francis. ''In Praise of Plants''. ISBN 0-88192-550-0. English translation of a poetic advocacy of plants. * King, J. ''Reaching for the sun: How plants work'' ISBN 0-521-58738-7 A fluent introduction to how plants work * [[Thomas Pakenham (historian)|Pakenham, Thomas]] (2002) ''Remarkable Trees of the World'' ISBN 0-297-84300-1 * Pakenham, Thomas (1996) ''Meetings with Remarkable Trees'' ISBN 0-297-83255-7 * Pollan, M. ''The Botany of Desire: a plant's-eye view of the world''. London: Bloomsbury ISBN 0-7475-6300-4 Account of the [[co-evolution]] of plants and humans * Thomas, B. A. (1981) ''The evolution of plants and flowers'' New York: St Martin's Press ISBN 0-312-27271-5 * Walker, D. ''Energy, Plants and Man'' ISBN 1-870232-05-4 A presentation of the basic concepts of photosynthesis ====Academic and scientific==== * Crawford, R. M. M. (1989). ''Studies in Plant Survival''. Oxford: Blackwell ISBN 0-632-01475-X * Matthews, R. E. F. ''Fundamentals of plant virology'' Academic Press,1992. * Mauseth, J. D.: ''Botany : an introduction to plant biology''. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-2134-4, A first year undergraduate level textbook * Morton, A. G. (1981). ''History of Botanical Science.''Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-508380-7 (hardback) ISBN 0-12-508382-3 (paperback) * Raven, Peter H., Evert, Ray H. and Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005) ''Biology of Plants''; 7th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman ISBN 1-57259-041-6 (A first year undergraduate level textbook; 1st ed. by Peter H. Raven; Helena Curtis. [New York]: Worth, 1970; 6th ed. 1999) * Ridge, I. (2002) ''Plants'' [[Oxford University Press]] ISBN 0-19-925548-2 * Strange, R. L. (2003) ''Introduction to [[plant pathology]]''. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH ISBN 0-470-84973-8 * Walter, H. (1985) ''[[Vegetation]] of the earth''; 3rd rev. ed. Springer. * Willis, K. (2002) ''The Evolution of Plants''. Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-850065-3 £22-99 ;Environmental botany * Crawley, M. J. (1997). ''Plant ecology''. Blackwell Scientific ISBN 0-632-03639-7 * Ennos, Roland and Sheffield, Elizabeth ''Plant Life''. Oxford: Blackwell Science ISBN 0-86542-737-2 Introduction to plant [[biodiversity]] * {{Cite book |last=Everitt |first=J. H. |coauthors=Lonard, R. L., Little, C. R. |title=Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico |publisher=Texas Tech University Press |location=Lubbock |year=2007 |isbn=0896726142}} ISBN 0-89672-614-2 * Richards, P. W. (1996). ''The Tropical Rainforest''. 2nd ed. Cambridge U. P. (Pbk) ISBN 0-521-42194-2 £32.50 * Stace, C. A. (1997) ''A New Flora of the British Isles''. 2nd ed. Cambridge U. P. ISBN 0-521-58935-5 ;Plant physiology * Bowsher, C. G., Steer, M. W. & Tobin, A. K. (2008) ''Plant Biochemistry''. New York & Abingdon: Garland Science, Taylor & Francis Group ISBN 0-8153-4121-0 * Buchanan, B. B., Gruissem, W. & Jones, R. L. (2000) ''Biochemistry & Molecular Biology of Plants''. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0-943088-39-9 * Fitter, A. & Hay, R. ''Environmental Physiology of Plants''; 3rd edition. New York: Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0-12-257766-3 * Lambers, Hans, Chapin, F. Stuart, III and Pons, Thijs L. (1998) ''Plant Physiological Ecology''. New York: Springer-Verlag ISBN 0-387-98326-0 ** http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-78341-3 2nd completely revised edition. New York: Springer, 2008 * Lawlor, D. W. (2000) ''Photosynthesis'' BIOS ISBN 1-85996-157-6 * Salisbury, F. B. and Ross, C. W. (1992) ''Plant Physiology''; 4th ed. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth ISBN 0-534-15162-0 * Taiz, Lincoln & Zeiger, Eduardo (1991) ''Plant Physiology''. Redwood City, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings **3rd ed. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates, 2002 ISBN 0-87893-823-0 **4th ed. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates, 2006 ISBN 9780878938568 ==External links== * U.S. Geological Survey. [http://www.nbii.gov/disciplines/botany/ National Biological Information Infrastructure: Botany] * [http://huntbot.andrew.cmu.edu Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation] * [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/PlantGrowth.html plant growth] and [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/PlantCell.html the plant cell] from [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/ Kimball's Biology Pages] * [http://www.botany.org/newsite/botany/ Botanical Society of America: What is Botany?] * [http://www-saps.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/index.htm Science and Plants for Schools] * [http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/mineralogie/palbot/teach/botanyteach.html Teaching Documents about Botany] Teaching documents, lecture notes and tutorials online: an annotated link directory. * [http://www.aspb.org/aboutus/ American society of plant biologists APSB] * [http://www.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/teaching/content.html Why study Plants? Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge] * [http://www.ubcbotanicalgarden.org/potd/ Botany Photo of the Day] * [http://rjb.revistas.csic.es Anales del Jardín Botánico de Madrid], Journal published by [http://www.rjb.csic.es Real Jardín Botánico], [[CSIC]] (scientific articles in Spanish, English, and other languages) * [http://collectaneabotanica.revistas.csic.es Collectanea Botanica], Journal published by [http://www.institutbotanic.bcn.es Institut Botànic de Barcelona], [[CSIC]] (scientific articles in Spanish, English, and other languages) ====Flora and other plant catalogs or databases==== * [http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/www-vl/ The Virtual Library of Botany] * [http://www.kulak.ac.be/bioweb/ High quality pictures of plants and information about them] from Catholic University of Leuven * [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QK1xC981/ Curtis's Botanical Magazine], 1790–1856 * [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QK488xE4/ The Trees Of Great Britain and Ireland], by Henry John Elwes & Augustine Henry, 1906–1913 * [http://www.pflanzen-portal.com Botanik-Datenbank] (ger.) * [http://green-24.de/search/botanik/pflanzen/index.html Plant Directory] (ger.) * [http://plants.usda.gov/index.html USDA plant database] * [http://www.linnean.org/ The Linnean Society of London] * [http://wildflower.utexas.edu/ Native Plant Information Network] * [http://www.best4plants.co.uk/Files/tradecentrepagecontent-pdffile-7.pdf Directory of Plants (PDF)]

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