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[[Image:Cropduster spraying pesticides.jpg|right|frame|A [[cropduster]] spreading pesticide.]] The U.S [[Environmental Protection Agency]] ([[EPA]]) defines a '''pesticide''' as "any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or lessening the damage of any [[pest (organism)|pest]]".<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/index.htm What is a Pesticide?] (US EPA definitions) retrieved [[June 24]], [[2006]]</ref> A pesticide may be a [[chemical]] substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against [[pest (animal)|pest]]s including [[insect]]s, plant [[pathogen]]s, weeds, [[mollusk]]s, [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s, [[fish]], nematodes ([[roundworm]]s) and [[microbe]]s that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or are a nuisance. Many pesticides are [[poison]]ous to humans. ==Types of Pesticides== * [[Bactericide]]s for the control of [[bacteria]] * [[Fungicide]]s for the control of [[fungus|fungi]] and [[oomycete]]s * [[Herbicide]]s for the control of weeds * [[Insecticide]]s for the control of [[insect]]s - these can be [[Ovicide]]s, [[Larvicide]]s or [[Adulticide]]s * [[Miticide]]s for the control of [[mite]]s * [[Molluscicide]]s for the control of [[slug]]s and [[snail]]s * [[Nematicide]]s for the control of [[nematode]]s * [[Rodenticide]]s for the control of [[rodent]]s * [[Virucide]]s for the control of [[virus]]es Pesticides can also be classed as synthetic pesticides or biological pesticides, although the distinction can sometimes blur. A systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. This movement is usually upward (through the xylem) and outward. Increased efficacy may be a result. Systemic insecticides which poison [[pollen]] and [[nectar]] in the [[flower]]s may kill needed [[pollinator]]s. ==History== Since before [[2500 BC]], humans have used pesticides to prevent damage to their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental [[sulfur]] dusting used in Sumeria about 4,500 years ago. By the [[15th century]], toxic chemicals such as [[arsenic]], [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[lead]] were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the [[17th century]], [[nicotine]] [[sulfate]] was extracted from [[tobacco]] leaves for use as an insecticide. The [[19th century]] saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, [[pyrethrum]] which is derived from [[chrysanthemum]]s, and [[rotenone]] which is derived from the roots of tropical [[vegetables]].<ref>Miller, G. Tyler Jr. (2002). Living in the Environment (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.</ref> In [[1939]], [[Paul Hermann Müller|Paul Müller]] discovered that [[DDT]] was a very effective insecticide. It quickly became the most widely-used pesticide in the world. However, in the [[1960s]], it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing which was a huge threat to [[biodiversity]]. [[Rachel Carson]] wrote the best-selling book ''[[Silent Spring]]'' about [[biological magnification]]. DDT is now banned in at least 86 countries, but it is still used in some developing nations to prevent [[malaria]] and other tropical diseases by killing [[mosquitoes]] and other disease-carrying insects. Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since [[1950]], and 2.5 million tons of industrial pesticides are now used each year.<ref>Miller, G. Tyler Jr. (2002). Living in the Environment (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.</ref> ==Regulation== In most countries, in order to sell or use a pesticide, it must be approved by a government agency. For example, in the [[United States]], the [[EPA]] does so. Complex and costly studies must be conducted to indicate whether the material is effective against the intended pest and safe to use. During the registration process, a label is created which contains directions for the proper use of the material. Based on acute toxicity, pesticides are assigned to a [[Toxicity Class]]. [[Pesticide misuse]] is illegal in most coun tries. [[Image:Hazardous-pesticide.jpg|thumb|right|Preparing for the spread of pesticides.]] Some pesticides are considered too [[hazard]]ous for sale to the general public and are designated [[restricted use pesticides]]. Only certified applicators, who have passed an exam, may purchase or supervise the application of restricted use pesticides. Records of sales and use are required to be maintained and may be audited by government agencies charged with the enforcement of pesticide regulations. "Read and follow label directions" is a phrase often quoted by extension agents, garden columnists and others teaching about pesticides. This is not merely good advice; it is the law, at least in the U.S. Similar laws exist in limited parts of the rest of the world. The [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]] of 1972 (FIFRA) set up the current system of pesticide regulations. It was amended somewhat by the [[Food Quality Protection Act of 1996]]. Its purpose is to make pesticide manufacture, distribution and use as safe as possible. The most important points for users to understand are these: it is a violation to apply any pesticide in a manner not in accordance with the label for that pesticide, and it is a [[crime]] to do so intentionally. ==Effects of pesticide use== {{Pollution}} ===On the environment=== Pesticides have been found to pollute virtually every lake, river and stream in the [[United States]], according to the [http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2005/1291/ US Geological Survey]. Pesticide [[surface runoff|runoff]] has been found to be highly lethal to amphibians, according to a recent study by the [http://www.pitt.edu/~relyea/Roundup.html University of Pittsburgh]. Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a [[hydrology transport model]] to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. Pesticides are strongly implicated in [[pollinator decline]], including through the mechanism of [[Colony Collapse Disorder]] The use of pesticides also decreases biodiversity in the soil. Not using them results in higher soil quality<ref>{{cite journal | author=Johnston, A. E. | title=Soil organic-matter, effects on soils and crops | journal=Soil Use Management | year=1986 | volume=2 | pages=97-105}}</ref> with the additional effect that more life in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years where there is less rain. For example, during drought years, organic farms have been found to have yields 20-40% higher than conventional farms.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Lotter, D. W., Seidel, R. & Liebhardt W. | title=The performance of organic and conventional cropping systems in an extreme climate year | journal=American Journal of Alternative Agriculture | year=2003 | volume=18 | pages=146-154}}</ref> ===On farmers=== There have been many studies of farmers with the goal of determining the health effects of pesticide exposure. <ref>{{cite journal | author= Linda A. McCauley, et.al. | title=[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/8526/8526.html Studying Health Outcomes in Farmworker Populations Exposed to Pesticides] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | year=2006 | volume=114 | pages=}}</ref> Research in Bangladesh suggests that many farmers' do not need to apply pesticide to their rice fields, but continue to do so only because the pesticide is paid for by the government. [http://radio.oneworld.net/mediamanage/view/5717?PrintableVersion=enabled] [[Organophosphate]] pesticides have increased in use, because they are less damaging to the environment and they are less persistent than organochlorine pesticides.<ref>Jaga K, Dharmani C. 2003. Sources of exposure to and public health implications of organophosphate pesticides. Pan Am J Public Health 14(3):171–185.</ref> These are associated with acute health problems such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.<ref>Ecobichon DJ. 1996. Toxic effects of pesticides. In: Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons (Kla assen CD, Doull J, eds). 5th ed. New York:MacMillan, 643–689.</ref> Additionally, many studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatologic conditions,<ref>Arcury TA, Quandt SA, Mellen BG. 2003. An exploratory analysis of occupational skin disease among Latino migrant and seasonal farmworkers in North Carolina. Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health 9(3):221–32.</ref><ref>O'Malley MA. 1997. Skin reactions to pesticides. Occupational Medicine 12:327–345.</ref> cancer,<ref>Daniels JL, Olshan AF, Savitz DA. 1997. Pesticides and childhood cancers. Environmental Health Perspectives 105: 1068–1077.</ref> depression, neurologic deficits,<ref>{{cite journal | author=Kamel F, et.al. | title=[http://dir.niehs.nih.gov/direb/studies/fwhs/pubs.htm Neurobehavioral performance and work experience in Florida farmworkers] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | year=2003 | volume=111 | pages=1765-1772}}</ref> <ref>Firestone JA, Smith-Weller T, Franklin G, Swanson P, Longsteth WT, Checkoway H. 2005. Pesticides and risk of Parkinson disease: a population-based case-control study. Archives of Neurology 62(1):91–95.</ref> miscarriages, and birth defects. <ref>Engel LS, O'Meara ES, Schwartz SM. 2000. Maternal occupation in agriculture and risk of limb defects in Washington State, 1980-1993. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 26(3): 193–198 </ref> <ref>Cordes DH, Rea DF. 1988. Health hazards of farming. American Family Physician 38:233–243 </ref> <ref>Das R, Steege A, Baron S, Beckman J, Harrison R. 2001. Pesticide-related illness among migrant farm workers in the United States. Int J Occup Environ Health 7: 303–312 </ref> <ref>Eskenazi B, Bradman A, Castorina R. 1999. Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects. Environmental Health Perspectives 107 (suppl 3):409–419 </ref> <ref>Garcia AM. 2003. Pesticide exposure and women's health. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 44(6):584–594.<br> Moses M. 1989. Pesticide-related health problems and farmworkers. AAOHN 37:115–130 </ref> <ref>Schwartz DA, Newsum LA, Heifetz RM. 1986. Parental occupational and birth outcome in an agricultural community. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 12:51–54 </ref> <ref>Stallones L, Beseler C. 2002. Pesticide illness, farm practices, and neurological symptoms among farm residents in Colorado. Environ Res 90:89–97 </ref> <ref>Strong, LL, Thompson B, Coronado GD, Griffith WC, Vigoren EM, Islas I. 2004. Health symptoms and exposure to organophosphate pesticides in farmworkers. Am J Ind Med 46:599–606 </ref> <ref>Van Maele-Fabry G, Willems JL. 2003. [http://oem.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/60/9/634 Occupation related pesticide exposure and cancer of the prostate: a meta-analysis]. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60(9): 634–642 </ref> Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and cancer, perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers. <ref>Alavanja MC, Hoppin JA, Kamel F. 2004. Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity. Annu Rev Public Health 25:155–197.</ref> <ref>Kamel F, Hoppin JA. 2004. Association of pesticide exposure with neurologic dysfunction and disease. Environ Health Perspect 112:950–958.</ref> ===On consumers=== A study published by the [[United States National Research Council]] in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.<ref>National Research Council. [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309048753/html/ ''Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children'']. National Academies Press; 1993. ISBN 0-309-04875-3. Retrieved 10-Apr-2006.</ref> A recent study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure in 23 school children before and after replacing their diet with [[organic food]] (food grown without synthetic pesticides). In this study it wa s found that levels of [[organophosphorus]] pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet <ref>{{cite journal | author=Lu, Chensheng, et al. | title=[http://www.ehponline.org/members/2005/8418/8418.pdf Organic Diets Significantly Lower Children’s Dietary Exposure to Organophosphorus Pesticides] | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | year=2006 | volume=114 | pages=260-263}}</ref>. ==Pesticide residues in food== The [http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/ Pesticide Data Program], a program started by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] is the largest tester of pesticide residues on food sold in the United States. It began in 1990, and has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent summary results are from the year 2005: *{{cite paper | author = Pesticide Data Program | title = Annual Summary Calendar Year 2005 | version = | publisher = USDA | date = Feb 2006 | url = http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Summary2005.pdf | format = pdf | accessdate =2006-07-24 }} For example, on page 30 is comprehensive data on pesticides on fruits. Some example data: {| border="1" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" align="center" ! Fresh Fruit and<br> Vegetables !! Number of <br>Samples Analyzed !! Samples with<br> Residues Detected !! Percent of <br>Samples with<br> Detections !! Different <br>Pesticides<br> Detected !! Different <br>Residues <br>Detected !! Total Residue<br> Detections |-align="center" ! Apples | 774 || 727 || 98 || 33 || 41 || 2,619 |-align="center" ! Lettuce | 743 || 657 || 88 || 47 || 57 || 1,985 |-align="center" ! Pears | 741 || 643 || 87 || 31 || 35 || 1,309 |-align="center" ! Orange Juice | 186 || 93 || 50 || 3 || 3 || 94 |} They were also able to test for multiple pesticides within a single sample and found that: :''These data indicate that 29.5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent'' :''compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent'' :''contained more than 1 pesticide.'' - page 34. The [[Environmental Working Group]] used the results of nearly 43,000 tests for pesticides on produce collected by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] and the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] between 2000 and 2004, to produce a ranking of 43 commonly eaten fruits & vegetables.[http://www.foodnews.org/fulldataset.php] ==Dangers of pesticides== [[Image:Atrazine_use_map_1997.png|thumb|376px|[[Atrazine]] use in pounds per square mile by county. Atrazine is one of the most commonly used pesticides in the United States. (From [http://ca.water.usgs.gov/pnsp/pesticide_use_maps/ USGS Pesticide Use Maps])]] Pesticides can present danger to consumers, bystanders, or workers during manufacture, transport, or during and after use <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/newnote/workshop3.htm Pesticides: Health and Safety]</ref>. There is concern that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to the consumer. These concerns are one reason for the [[organic food]] movement. Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain [[pesticide residue]]s after being washed or peeled (see [[Pesticide#Pesticide residues in food|Pesticide residues in food]], above). Residues, permitted by US government safety standards, are limited to tolerance levels that are considered safe, based on average daily consumption of these foods by adults and children. Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modelling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is no information on possible [[synergistic]] effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water <ref> Rabideau, Christine L. [http://e s.epa.gov/ncer/fellow/progress/99/rabideauch00.html Multiple Pesticide Exposure: Immunotoxicty And Oxidative Stress] 2001</ref>. The remaining exposure routes, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/spraydrift.htm Spray Drift of Pesticides]Dec 1999 </ref>. Risk of exposure to pesticide applicators, or other workers in the field after pesticide application, may also be significant and is regulated as part of the pesticide registration process. Children have been found to be especially susceptible to the harmful effects <ref> Noyes, Katherine [http://www.charityguide.org/volunteer/fifteen/pesticides.htm BANISH PESTICIDES FROM YOUR GARDEN]</ref> of pesticides. A number of research studies have found higher instances of brain cancer, leukemia and birth defects in children with early exposure to pesticides, according to the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]]<ref>[http://www.nrdc.org/health/kids/farm/chap1.asp HEALTH HAZARDS OF PESTICIDES] Natural Resources Defense Council Oct 1998</ref>. Peer-reviewed studies now suggest neurotoxic effects on developing animals from [[organophosphate]] pesticides at legally-tolerable levels, including fewer nerve cells, smaller birth weights, and lower cognitive scores. The [[EPA]] finished a 10 year review of the [[organophosphate]] pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers. <ref> Melissa Lee Phillips [http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/114-10/spheres.html Registering Skepticism: Does the EPA's Pesticide Review Protect Children?] Environmental Health Perspectives 2006 October; 114(10): A592–A595.</ref> Besides human health risks, pesticides also pose dangers to the environment <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm DDT Ban Takes Effect EPA press release - December 31, 1972]</ref> . Non-target organisms can be severely impacted. In some cases, where a pest insect has some controls from a [[beneficial insect|beneficial]] [[predator]] or [[parasite]], an insecticide application can kill both pest and beneficial populations. The beneficial organism almost always takes longer to recover than the pest. A study comparing [[biological pest control]] and use of [[pyrethroid]] insectide for diamondback moths, a major [[cabbage]] family insect pest, showed that the insecticide application created a rebounded pest population due to loss of insect [[predator]]s, whereas the biocontrol did not show the same effect. <ref> Muckenfuss, A. E.; Shepard, B. M.; Ferrer, E. R. [http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/90dbm/90DBM02.pdf Natural Mortality of Diamondback Moth in Coastal South Carolina] [[Clemson University]], Coastal Research and Education Center </ref> Likewise pesticides sprays in an effort to control adult [[mosquito]]es, may temporarily depress mosquito populations, however they may result in a larger population in the long run by damaging the natural controlling factors <ref>[http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/core-tutorial/module06/index.html Pesticides In the Environment]</ref>. Pesticides inflict extremely widespread damage to [[biota]], and many countries have acted to discourage pesticide usage through their [[Biodiversity Action Plans]]. Misuse of pesticides can also cause [[pollinator decline]], which can adversely affect food crops. An early discovery relating to pesticide use, is that pests may eventually [[Evolution|evolve]] to become resistant to chemicals. When sprayed with pesticides, many pests will initially be very susceptible. However, not all pests are killed, and some with slight variations in their genetic make-up are resistant and therefore survive. Through [[natural selection]], the pests may eventually become very resistant to the pesticide. Farmers may resort to increased use of pesticides, exacerbating the problem <ref> Marten, Gerry [http://www.ecotippingpoints.org/pesticidetrapindia.asp ESCAPING THE PESTICIDE TRAP IN INDIA </ref>. ‘'[[Persistent Organic Pollutant]]s’' (POPs) are one of the lesser-known environmental issues raised as result of using pesticides. POPs may continue to poison non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humans <ref>[http://0-www.cdc.gov.mill1.sjlibrary.org/nceh/indicators/pesticides.htm]</ref> by disruption in the [[endocrine system]], [[cancer]], [[infertility]] and [[Mutagenesis|mutagenic effects]], although very little is currently known about these ‘chronic effects’. Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent [[soil contaminant]]s, whose impact may endure for decades, and adversely affect [[soil conservation]] <ref>[http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/er/hazsubs/sources.htm Sources of Common Contaminants and Their Health Effects] [[USEPA]]</ref>. A new study conducted by the [[Harvard School of Public Health]] in Boston, has discovered a 70% increase in the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease for people exposed to even low levels of pesticides.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9408-pesticide-exposure-raises-risk-of-parkinsons.html Pesticide exposure raises risk of Parkinson’s]<br>{{cite journal | author=Alberto Ascherio, Honglei Chen, Marc G. Weisskopf, Eilis O'Reilly, Marjorie L. McCullough, Eugenia E. Calle, Michael A. Schwarzschild, Michael J. Thun | title=[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112660877/ABSTRACT Pesticide exposure and risk for Parkinson's disease] | journal=Annals of Neurology | year=2006 | volume= | pages=}}</ref> ==Managing pest resistance== Pest resistance to a pesticide is commonly managed through pesticide rotation or [[tankmixing]] with other pesticides{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Rotation involves alternating among pesticide classes with different modes of action to delay the onset of or mitigate existing pest resistance. Different pesticide classes may be active on different pest sites of action. The U.S. Environmental Agency (EPA or USEPA) designates different classes of fungicides, herbicides and insecticides. Pesticide manufacturers may, on product labeling, require that no more than a specified number of consecutive applications of a pesticide class be made before alternating to a different pesticide class. This manufacturer requirement is intended to extend the useful life of a product. Tankmixing pesticides is the combination of two or more pesticides with different modes of action. This practice may improve individual pesticide application results in addition to the benefit of delaying the onset of or mitigating existing pest resistance. ==Continuing development of pesticides== Pesticides are often very cost-effective for farmers. Pesticide safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and replacing high risk pesticides is the ultimate solution to reducing risks placed on our society from pesticide use. For over 30 years, there has been a trend in the United States and in many other parts of the world to use pesticides in combination with alternative pest controls. This use of [[integrated pest management]] (IPM) is now commonplace in US agriculture. With pesticide regulations that now put a higher priority on reducing the risks of pesticides in our food supply and emphasize environmental protection, old pesticides are being phased out in favor of new reduced risk pesticides. Many of these reduced risk pesticides include biological and botanical derivatives and alternatives. As a result, older, more hazardous, pesticides are being phased out and replaced with pest controls that reduce these health and environmental risks. Chemical engineers continually develop new pesticides to produce enhancements over previous generations of products. In addition, applicators are being encouraged to consider alternative controls and adopt methods that reduce the use of chemical pesticides. This process is on-going and is not an immediate solution to the risks of pesti cide use. In [[2006]], the [[World Health Organization]] suggested the resumption of the limited use of DDT to fight [[malaria]]. They called for the use of DDT to coat the inside walls of houses in areas where [[mosquitoes]] are prevalent. [[Dr. Arata Kochi]], WHO's malaria chief, said ,"One of the best tools we have against malaria is indoor residual house spraying. Of the dozen insecticides WHO has approved as safe for house spraying, the most effective is DDT." ==Pesticide use maps in the US== The [http://www.usgs.gov/ US Geological Survey]'s [http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/ National Water-Quality Assessment Program] published a [http://ca.water.usgs.gov/pnsp/pesticide_use_maps_1997/ 1997 Pesticide Use Maps] which shows estimates of pesticide type and intensity of pesticide use by business of mass food production. ==Trivia== In the [[Roald Dahl]] book [[James and the Giant Peach]] the word 'pesticide' is used to refer to an insect committing suicide. ==See also== *[[Agrichemical]]s *[[DDT]] *[[Endangered arthropod]] *[[List of environmental health hazards]] *[[Pesticide misuse]] *[[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]] *[[Integrated Pest Management]] *[[Nonpoint source pollution]] *[[Pesticide poisoning]] *[[Soil contamination]] *[[Temik]] *[[Daminozide]] or [[Alar]] *[[Pesticide toxicity to bees]] *[[Transgenic maize]] [[Bt corn]] *[[Protectant]] *[[Non-pesticide management]] *[[Water pollution]] *[[Organophosphate]] == References == <references/> ==Further reading== ===Books=== *{{cite book | author=Greene, Stanley A.; Pohanish, Richard P. (editors) | title=Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals | publisher=SciTech Publishing, Inc | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-8155-1516-2}} *{{cite book | author=Hamilton, Denis; Crossley, Stephen (editors) | title=Pesticide residues in food and drinking water | publisher=J. Wiley | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-471-48991-3}} *{{cite book | author=Hond, Frank et.al. | title=Pesticides: problems, improvements, alternatives | publisher=Blackwell Science | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-632-05659-2}} *{{cite book | author=Kegley, Susan E.; Wise, Laura J. | title=Pesticides in fruits and vegetables | publisher=University Science Books | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0-935702-46-6}} * Miller, G. Tyler Jr. (2002). ''Living in the Environment'' (12th Ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-534-37697-5 *{{cite book | author=Watson, David H. (editor) | title=Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food | publisher=Woodhead Publishing | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-85573-734-5}} *{{cite book | author=Ware, George W.; Whitacre, David M. | title=Pesticide Book | publisher=Meister Publishing Co | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-892829-11-8}} ===Journal Articles=== *{{cite journal | author=Walter A. Alarcon, et.al. | title=Acute Illnesses Associated With Pesticide Exposure at Schools | journal=Journal of the American Medical Association | year=July 2005 | volume=294 | pages=455–465}} ===News=== *{{cite news | last = Janofsky | first = Michael | title = E.P.A. Recommends Limits on Thousands of Uses of Pesticides | work = | pages = | publisher = New York Times | date = August 4, 2006 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/04/washington/04pest.html | accessdate = 2006-08-24 }} *{{cite news | last = Janofsky | first = Michael | title = Unions Say E.P.A. Bends to Political Pressure | work = | pages = | publisher = New York Times | date = 2006-08-02 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/02/washington/02pest.html | accessdate = 2006-08-24 }} *{{cite journal | author=Jocelyn Kaiser | title=Endocrine Disrupters Trigger Fertility Problems in Multiple Generations | journal=Science | year=June 2005 | volume=308 | pages=1391-1392}} *{{cite journal | author=Jocelyn Kaiser | title=House Would Foil Human Pesticide Studies | journal=Science | year=May 2005 | volume=308 | pages=1234}} *{{cite journal | author=Paul Webster | title=Study Finds Heavy Contamination Across Vast Russian Arctic | journal=Science | year=Dec 2004 | volume=306 | pages=1875}} *{{cite journal | author=Erik Stokstad | title=EPA Critic ized for Study of Child Pesticide Exposure | journal=Science | year=Nov 2004 | volume=306 | pages=961}} *{{cite journal | author=Laura Helmuth | title=Pesticide Causes Parkinson's in Rats | journal=Science | year=Nov 2000 | volume=290 | pages=1068}} *{{cite journal | author=David Adam | title=Pesticide use linked to Parkinson's disease | journal=Nature | year=Nov 2000 | volume=408 | pages=125}} ==External links== {{external links}} *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/medical_notes/449303.stm] article on pesticides from the UK *[http://npic.orst.edu National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC)] - Objective, science-based information about pesticide-related topics. *[http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hsb/pesticides/links.htm Center for Disease Control - Pesticides] * NIH encyclopedia pages with [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002832.htm general recommendations regarding risks due to Pesticides] and [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002430.htm emergency treatment of Insecticide exposure] * [http://www.flora.org/healthyottawa/ Coalition for a Healthy Ottawa - Has municipal pesticide bylaw statistics for Canada and Fact Sheets] * [http://www.pesticide.org/ Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides] - Resource on pesticide hazards and alternatives * [http://www.beyondpesticides.org/ Beyond Pesticides, founded in 1981 as the National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides] - Source of information on pesticide hazards, least-toxic practices and products, and on pesticide issues. Website has Daily News Blog relating to pesticides. * [http://www.beyondpesticides.org/forum National Pesticide Forum]- Annual grassroots conference on pesticide policy, science, regulation and activism. * [http://www.cdms.net/manuf/manuf.asp a list of [[EPA]] pesticide labels for pesticides by trade name] * [http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/class_bactericides.html Common bactericides] * [http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/class_virucides.html Common virucides] * [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=pesticide&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding pesticides] * [http://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/ Compendium of Pesticide Common Names] - Maintained by Alan Wood * [http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/ UK Pesticide Safety Directorate] * [http://www.durango-software.com Durango Software] - Provides risk assessment tools for pesticide use * [http://www.ewg.org/reports/bodyburden2/execsumm.php The Pollution in Newborns] - From the Environmental Working Group * [http://www.sankey.ws/pen.html The Pesticide Education Network, Ottawa Canada] * [http://www.pan-uk.org/default.htm Pesticide Action Network UK] Aims to minimize pesticide use. * [http://www.charityguide.org/volunteer/fifteen/pesticides.htm Banish Pesticides from Your Garden] Article on pesticide dangers and alternatives. * [http://www.pesticideinfo.org Compilation of multiple regulatory databases into a web-accessible form] * [http://www.croplifeamerica.org US trade association representing the crop protection and pest control industry] * [http://www.mdrgf.org A dossier on dangers of pesticides by the French NGO MDRGF. MDRGF is a partner NGO of PAN Europe] *[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/food/viewtols.htm Pesticides and Food] - Pesticide Residue Limits in Food *[http://www.ams.usda.gov/science/pdp/Download.htm Pesticide Residues in Food] - Data and Summary reports from the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] on pesticide residues in food sold in the United States. *[http://www.gao.gov/new.items/rc00017.pdf Pesticides: Use, Effects, and Alternatives to Pesticides in Schools] (pdf) from the United States General Accounting Office *[http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/2006/EPA-Pesticides-Pandering26may06.htm#1 Letter to EPA Administrator Stephen Johnson] ([http://www.peer.org/docs/epa/06_25_5_union_ltr.pdf pdf]) - From Unions representing 9,000 scientists (May 24, 2006) *Streaming online video about efforts to reduce pesticide use in rice in Bangladesh. Wind ows Media Player [http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.wmv], Real Player [http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.rm] *[http://alternatives2toxics.pointinspace.com:80/fmi/iwp/cgi?-db=A2T_HerpDB&-loadframes Reptile Amphibian & Pesticide (RAP) Database] ===Pesticide regulatory authorities=== *[http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ US EPA] *[http://www.pesticides.gov.uk UK Pesticides Safety Directorate] *[http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/plant/protection/evaluation/index_en.htm European Commission pesticide information] [[Category:Pesticides|*]] [[Category:soil contamination]]

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