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{{otheruses2|Wine}} [[Image:Red Wine Glas.jpg|200px|thumb|A glass of red wine]] '''Wine''' is an [[alcoholic beverage]] made from the [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] of unmodified [[grape]] juice.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106005/wine Wine], Encyclopedia Britannica online, Retrieved 24 February 2007.</ref> The natural chemical balance of grapes is such that they ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients.<ref> H. Johnson ''Vintage: The Story of Wine'' pg 11-16 Simon & Schuster 1989 ISBN 0671791826 </ref> Although other fruits like apples and berries can also be fermented, the resultant "wines" are normally named after the fruit from which they are produced (for example, [[apple wine]] or [[elderberry wine]]) and are generically known as ''fruit'' or ''[[country wine]]''. Others, such as [[barley wine]] and [[rice wine]] (e.g. [[sake]]), are made from starch-based materials and resemble [[beer]] more than wine, while [[ginger wine]] is [[Fortified wine|fortified]] with brandy. In these cases, the use of the term "wine" is a reference to the higher alcohol content, rather than production process.<ref>[http://www.avbc.com/news/BW.html Barley Wine], The Brewer's Corner, Retrieved February 24 2007.</ref> The commercial use of the [[England|English]] word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.<ref name="Wine Label decoder">George, Rosemary, ''The Simon & Schuster Pocket Wine Label Decoder'', 1989.</ref> Wine is produced by [[fermentation (food)|fermenting]] crushed grapes using various types of [[yeast]] which consume the sugars found in the grapes and convert them into [[Ethanol|alcohol]]. Various varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are used depending on the types of wine produced.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.2basnob.com/wine-introduction.html |title=Introduction to Wine |work=2basnob.com }}</ref> Wine has a long history dating back about 8,000 years and is thought to have originated in present day [[Georgia(country)|Georgia]] or [[Iran]].<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/000498.html |title=8,000-year-old wine unearthed in Georgia |accessdate=2003-12-28 |work=The Independent }}</ref><ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/wine.html World's Earliest Wine]. Archeology, vol. 49 (1996), Retrieved 24 February 2004.</ref> Wine is thought to have appeared in [[Europe]] about 6,500 years ago in [[Greece]]<ref>[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2007/03/16/oldgrapes_arc.html?category=archaeology&guid=20070316120000 Ancient Mashed Grapes Found in Greece] Discovery News.</ref> and was very common in classical [[Greece]] and [[Roman Empire|Rome]]. Wine has also played an important role in religion since ancient times. The Greek God [[Dionysos]] and the Roman God [[Bacchus]] represented wine. Wine has also played an important role in ceremonies in the [[Christianity|Christian]] religion such as [[Mass (liturgy)|mass]]. The word "wine" derives from the [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] ''*winam'', an early borrowing from the [[Latin]] ''vinum'', "wine" or "(grape) [[vine]]", itself derived from the [[Proto-Indo-European]] stem *win-o- (cf. [[Ancient Greek]] ''{{polytonic|οῖνος}}'' ''oînos'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=wine Wine etymology], etymonline.com, Retrieved 24 February 2007.</ref> Similar words for wine or grapes are found in the [[Semitic languages]] (cf. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ﻭﻳﻦ ''wayn'') and in [[Georgian language|Georgian]] (''ğvino''), and the term is considered an ancient ''[[wanderwort]]''.<ref>Bretcher, T., etal, [http://www.ehistling.meotod.de/data/papers/group_e_pub.pdf John Enjoys his Glass of Wine - Are there any English Words at all?], eHistLing Vol. 1.</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Wine}} Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest wine production came from sites in [[Georgia(country)|Georgia]] and [[Iran]], dating from 6000 to 5000 BC.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/000498.html |title=8,000-year-old wine unearthed in Georgia |accessdate=2003-12-28 |work=The Independent }}</ref><ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/wine.html World's Earliest Wine]. Archeology, vol. 49 (1996), Retrieved 24 February 2004.</ref> The archaeological evidence becomes clearer, and points to domestication of grapevine, in Early [[Bronze Age]] sites of the [[Near East]], [[Sumer]] and [[Egypt]] from around the third millennium BC.<ref>{{cite news | first=Dan | last=Verango | coauthors= | title=White wine turns up in King Tutankhamen's tomb | date=[[2006-05-29]] | publisher= | url =http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/columnist/vergano/2006-05-29-tut-white-wine_x.htm | work =USA Today | pages = | accessdate = 2007-09-06 | language = }}</ref> The very oldest known evidence suggesting wine production in [[Europe]] and second oldest in the world comes from archaeological sites in [[Greece]] and is dated to 6,500 years ago.<ref>[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2007/03/16/oldgrapes_arc.html?category=archaeology&guid=20070316120000 Ancient Mashed Grapes Found in Greece] Discovery News.</ref><ref>[http://www.zeenews.com/articles.asp?aid=361797&sid=FTP Mashed grapes find re-write history of wine] Zeenews</ref><ref>[http://www.dailyindia.com/show/126225.php/Mashed-grapes-find-in-Greece-could-re-write-history-of-wine 6500 year old Mashed grapes found] </ref> The same archaeological sites in Greece also contain remnants of the world’s earliest evidence of crushed grapes.<ref>[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2007/03/16/oldgrapes_arc.html?category=archaeology&guid=20070316120000 Ancient Mashed Grapes Found in Greece] Discovery News.</ref> In fact several Greek sources as well as [[Pliny the Elder]] describe how the ancient Greeks used partly dehydrated gypsum before fermentation and some type of lime after fermentation to reduce acidity. The Greek writer [[Theophrastus]] is actually the oldest known source to describe this aspect of Greek wine making. <ref name=Theophrastus>{{cite book | last = Caley | first = Earle | title = Theophrastis On Stone | publisher = Ohio State University | year = 1956}}[http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/theophrastus-on-stones/page_215 Online version: Gypsum/lime in wine] </ref> <ref name = farlang/> In [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], wine became a part of recorded history, playing an important role in ancient [[Ceremony|ceremonial life]]. Wine was possibly introduced into Egypt by the [[Ancient Greeks]].<ref>[http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=2146412958&mode=thread&order=06500 year old Mashed grapes found] World’s earliest evidence of crushed grapes</ref> Traces of wine were also found in China, dating from the second and first millennium BC<ref>[http://www.sytu.edu.cn/zhgjiu/u5-2.htm Wine Production in China 3000 years ago].</ref>. Wine was common in classical Greece and Rome.<ref>[http://www.greekwinemakers.com/czone/history/2ancient.shtml The history of wine in ancient Greece] at greekwinemakers.com</ref> The Ancient Greeks introduced [[vines]] such as [[Vitis vinifera]]<ref name=Jacobson>Introduction to Wine Laboratory Practices and Procedures, Jean L. Jacobson, Springer, p.84 </ref> and made wine in their numerous colonies in [[Italy]],<ref name=Fagan>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, Brian Murray Fagan, 1996 Oxford Univ Pr, p.757 </ref> [[Sicily]],<ref name=Sandler>Wine: A Scientific Exploration, Merton Sandler, Roger Pinder, CRC Press, p.66 </ref> southern [[France]],<ref name=Kibler> Medieval France: an encyclopedia, William Westcott Kibler, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, p.964 </ref> and [[Spain]].<ref name=Jacobson>Introduction to Wine Laboratory Practices and Procedures, Jean L. Jacobson, Springer, p.84 </ref> [[Dionysus]] was the Greek god of wine and revelry, and wine was frequently referred to in the works of [[Homer]] and [[Aesop]]. Many of the major wine producing regions of Western Europe today were established by the Romans.<ref name="Phillips pg 37"> R. Phillips ''A Short History of Wine'' pg 37 Harper Collins 2000 ISBN 0060937378 </ref> Wine making technology improved considerably during the time of the Roman Empire. Many grape varieties and cultivation techniques were known. Barrels were developed for storing and shipping wine.<ref name="Phillips pg 37"> R. Phillips ''A Short History of Wine'' pg 37 Harper Collins 2000 ISBN 0060937378 </ref> Since Roman times, wine (potentially mixed with herbs and minerals) was assumed to serve medicinal purposes as well. During Roman times it was not uncommon to dissolve pearls in wine for better health. Cleopatra created her own legend by promising Marc Anthony she would "drink the value of a province" in one cup of wine, after which she drank an expensive pearl with a cup of wine. <ref name = farlang/>. Another medieval application was the use of snake-stones (banded [[Agate]] resembling the figural rings on a snake) dissolved in wine against snake bites, which shows an early understanding of the effects of alcohol on the central nerve system in such situations <ref name = farlang/> In [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]], the [[Christian Church]] was a staunch supporter of wine which was necessary for the celebration of the Catholic Mass. In places such as [[Germany]], beer was banned and considered [[pagan]] and [[barbaric]] while wine consumption was viewed as civilized and a sign of conversion.<ref name="Phillips pg 62-63"> R. Phillips ''A Short History of Wine'' pg 62-63 Harper Collins 2000 ISBN 0060937378 </ref> Wine was also forbidden in the [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]], but after [[Geber]] and other [[Alchemy (Islam)|Muslim chemists]] pioneered the [[distillation]] of wine, it was used for other purposes, including [[cosmetics|cosmetic]] and [[Islamic medicine|medical]] uses.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%207.htm Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources].</ref> In fact the 10th century Persian philosopher and scientist [[Al Biruni]] described a number of recipes where herbs, minerals and even gemstones are mixed with wine for medicinal purposes. So much wine was revered and its effect feared that elaborate theories were developed which gemstone-cups would best counteract its negative side effects. <ref name=farlang>[http://www.farlang.com/content/2007-07-26.3408347790/view_cpage Wine Drinking and Making in Antiquity: Historical References on the Role of Gemstones] Many classic scientists such as [[Al Biruni]], [[Theophrastus]], [[Georg Agricola]], [[Albertus Magnus]] as well as newer authors such as [[George Frederick Kunz]] describe the many talismanic, medicinal uses of minerals and wine combined.</ref> ==Grape varieties== {{main|List of grape varieties}} [[Image:Wine grapes03.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Wine grapes on a vine]] Wine is usually made from one or more [[Variety (biology)|varieties]] of the [[Europe]]an [[species]], ''[[Vitis vinifera]]''. When one of these varieties, such as [[Pinot Noir]], [[Chardonnay]], or [[Merlot]], for example, is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is a [[varietal]], as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way inferior to varietal wines; some of the world's most valued and expensive wines from the [[Bordeaux]], [[Rioja]] or [[Tuscany]] regions are a blend of several grape varieties of the same [[vintage]]. Wine can also be made from other species or from [[hybrids]], created by the genetic crossing of two species. ''[[Vitis labrusca]]'', ''[[Vitis aestivalis]]'', ''[[Vitis rupestris]]'', ''[[Vitis rotundifolia]]'' and ''[[Vitis riparia]]'' are native [[North America]]n grapes, usually grown for eating in fruit form or made into grape juice, jam, or jelly, but sometimes made into wine, eg. [[Concord grape|Concord]] wine (''Vitis labrusca'' species). Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of [[grafting]]. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species rootstock. This is common practice because North American grape species are resistant to [[phylloxera]], a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century, Europe's vineyards were devastated by the bug, leading to massive vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the world except for Chile and Argentina, which have yet to be exposed to the insect.<ref name="Robinson pg 97"> J. Robinson ''Jancis Robinson's Wine Course'' pg 97 Abbeville Press Publisher 2003 ISBN 0789208830 </ref> The variety of grape(s), [[aspect (geography)|aspect (direction of slope)]], elevation, and [[topography]] of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, the climate and seasonal conditions under which grapes are grown, and the local [[yeast]] cultures all together form the concept of "''[[terroir]]''." The range of possibilities lead to great variety among wine products, which is extended by the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes. Many small producers use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.<ref name="Johnson & Robinson pg 22-23"> H. Johnson & J. Robinson ''The World Atlas of Wine'' pg 22-23 Mitchell Beazley ISBN 1840003324 </ref> However, flavor differences are not desirable for producers of mass-market [[table wine]] or other cheaper wines, where consistency is more important. Producers will try to minimize differences in sources of grapes by using wine making technology such as [[micro-oxygenation]], tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin film evaporation, and spinning cone.<ref> M. Citriglia [http://winegeeks.com/articles/85/high_alcohol_is_a_wine_fault_not_a_badge_of_honor/ High Alcohol is a Wine Fault... Not a Badge of Honor] WineGeeks.com </ref> ==Classification== [[Image:White Wine Glas.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A glass of white wine]] [[Image:Wine glass.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Close-up of a glass of white wine]] Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in various regions of the world. France has an appellation system which ranges from Vin de Table (or "table wine"), through Vin de Pays and Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) to Appellation d'Origine Vin De Qualité Supérieure (AOVDQS) <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.terroir-france.com/wine/rates.htm#aovdqs |title=Wine classification |accessdate=2007-06-22 |work=terroir-france }}</ref> and which is based on the concept of [[terroir]] <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.wineanorak.com/terroir2.htm |title=Terroir revisited: towards a working definition |accessdate=2007-06-22 |work=wineanorak }}</ref> (or region of origin) and wine quality. Germany developed a similar system in 2002<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.germanwinesociety.org/wine_classification.htm |title=ABOUT GERMAN WINE |accessdate=2007-06-22 |work=German wine society }}</ref>, though this has not yet developed the authority of the French system.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.thewinedoctor.com/regionalguides/germanylawsandclassifications.shtml |title=German Wine Guide: Wine Laws and Classifications |accessdate=2007-06-22 |work=The Winedoctor }}</ref> Spain<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.winesfromspain.com/icex/cda/controller/pageGen/0,3346,1549487_4938361_4938888_1_-1,00.html |title=Land of wines |accessdate=2007-07-17 |work=Wines from Spain }}</ref> and Italy also have a classification which is based on a dual system of region of origin and quality of product.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.wineintro.com/regions/classification.html |title=Wine Classification - by Region or by Wine Type? |accessdate=2007-07-17 |work=Wine Intro }}</ref> [[New World wine]], that is wines from outside of the traditional wine growing regions of Europe, tend to be classified by grape rather than by quality or region of origin, though there have been subjective attempts to classify by quality<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.nicks.com.au/Index.aspx?link_id=76.907 |title=Towards an Australian Wine Classification |accessdate=2007-07-17 |work=Nicks Wine Merchants }}</ref>, most successfully by Langton's.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.camwheeler.com/wine/2005/langtons-australian-wine-classification-iv/ |title=Langton’s Australian Wine Classification IV |accessdate=2007-07-17 }}</ref> Wines are usually named either by their grape variety or by their place of production. Generally speaking, European wines are named both after the place of production (e.g. Bordeaux, [[Rioja]], [[Chianti]], [[Cotnari]]) and the grapes used (e.g. [[Pinot]], Chardonnay, [[Merlot]]). Wines from everywhere except Europe are generally named for the grape variety. More and more, however, market recognition of particular regions and wineries is leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of recognized locales include: [[Napa Valley]], [[Barossa Valley]], [[Willamette Valley]], [[Cafayate]], [[Marlborough, New Zealand|Marlborough]], [[Walla Walla]], etc. Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names is governed by [[trademark]] or [[copyright law]], rather than a specific wine law or a patent on the actual varietal blend or process used to achieve it. For example, [[Meritage]] (pronounced to rhyme with "heritage") is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of [[Cabernet Sauvignon]] and [[Merlot]], and may also include [[Cabernet Franc]], [[Petit Verdot]], and [[Malbec]], while the dôle is made from the Pinot Noir and Gamay grapes. Use of the term Meritage is protected by licensing agreements by The Meritage Association. ===Appellations=== The taste of a wine depends not only on the grape species and varietal blend, but can also depend on the ground and climate (known as [[terroir]]) where it is cultivated. Historically, wines have been known by names reflecting their origin, and sometimes style: [[Bordeaux wine|Bordeaux]], [[Rioja]], [[Mosel-Saar-Ruwer|Mosel]] and [[Chianti]] are all legally defined names, reflecting the traditional wines produced in the named region. These naming conventions or "[[appellations#wine|appellations]]" (as they are known in France) dictate not only where the grapes in a wine were grown, but also which grapes went into the wine and how they were vinified. The appellation system is strongest in the European Union, but a related system, the [[American Viticultural Area]], restricts the use of certain regional labels in America, such as [[Napa Valley]], [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] and [[Willamette Valley]]. The AVA designations do not restrict the type of grape used.<ref> Title 27 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) [http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=33fc0c0194b58b6fe95208945b5c637a&rgn=div5&view=text&node=27:1.0.1.1.2&idno=27#27:1.0.1.1.2.3.25.6 §4.25]</ref> In most of the world, wine labeled Champagne must be made from grapes grown in the Champagne region of France and fermented using a certain method, based on the international trademark agreements included in the [[Treaty of Versailles|1919 Treaty of Versailles]]. However, in the United States, a legal definition called [[semi-generic]] has enabled U.S. winemakers to use certain generic terms (Champagne, [[Hock (wine)|Hock]], [[Sherry]], etc.) if there appears next to the term the actual appellation of origin.<ref> Title 27 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) [http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=33fc0c0194b58b6fe95208945b5c637a&rgn=div5&view=text&node=27:1.0.1.1.2&idno=27#27:1.0.1.1.2.3.25.5 §4.24] </ref> More recently wine regions in countries with less stringent location protection laws such as the United States and Australia have joined with well-known European wine producing regions to sign the '''Napa Declaration to Protect Wine Place and Origin''', commonly known as the '''Napa Declaration on Place'''. This is a "declaration of joint principles stating the importance of location to wine and the need to protect place names."<ref>http://www.wineorigins.com/page.cfm?pageID=28 Napa Declaration to Protect Wine Place and Origin (press release, Napa Valley Vintners)</ref>. The Declaration was signed in [[July 2005]] by four [[United States]] winegrowing regions and three [[European Union]] winegrowing regions. The signatory regions from the US were: * [[Napa Valley]] * [[Washington (state)|Washington]] * [[Oregon]] * [[Walla Walla]] The signatory regions from the EU were: * [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]] * [[Cognac |Cognac]] (the commune where [[Cognac (drink)|Cognac wine]] is produced) * [[Oporto]] (the region where [[Port wine]] is produced) * [[Jerez]] (the region where [[Sherry]] is produced) The list of signatories to the agreement expanded in March 2007 when [[Sonoma County]], [[Paso Robles]], [[Chianti Classico]], [[Tokay]], [[Victoria, Australia]] and [[Western Australia]] signed the Declaration at a ceremony in Washington, DC. ===Red or white wine=== The colour of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the grape skin during fermentation.<ref name="MacNeil pg 31"> K. MacNeil ''The Wine Bible'' pg 31 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345 </ref> Grapes with coloured juice, for example alicante bouchet, are known as [[teinturier]]. Red wine is made from red (or black) grapes, but its red colour is bestowed by a process called [[Maceration (wine)|maceration]], whereby the skin is left in contact with the juice during fermentation. White wine can be made from any colour of grape as the skin is separated from the juice during fermentation. ===Rosé wine=== {{main|Rosé}} A blush wine can be made by removing the skins from the juice part way through fermentation, by blending reds and whites, or by concentrating liquid removed during fermentation. ===Table wine=== {{main|Table wine}} '''Table wines''' may have an alcohol content that is no higher than 14% in the U.S.. In Europe, light wine must be within 8.5% and 14% alcohol by volume. As such, unless a wine has more than 14% alcohol, or it has bubbles, it is a table wine or a light wine. Table wines are usually classified as "white," "red," or "rosé," depending on their colour. In Europe 'vins de table' (in French), 'vino da tavola' (in Italian), 'Tafelwein' (in German) or 'vino de mesa' (in Spanish), which translate to 'table wine' in English, are cheaper wines that often on the label do not include the information on the grape variety used or the region of origin. ===Sparkling wines=== {{main|Sparkling wine}} '''Sparkling wines''' such as [[Champagne (beverage)|champagne]], contain [[carbon dioxide]] which is produced naturally from fermentation or force-injected later. To have this effect, the wine is fermented twice, once in an open container to allow the carbon dioxide to escape into the air, and a second time in a sealed container, where the gas is caught and remains in the wine.<ref name="MacNeil pg 170"> K. MacNeil ''The Wine Bible'' pg 170 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345 </ref> Sparkling wines that gain their [[carbonation]] from the traditional method of bottle fermentation are called 'Bottle Fermented', 'Méthode Traditionelle', or '[[Méthode Champenoise]]'. The latter designation is considered wrong by those who hold that Champagne refers to the origin as well as the method of production. Other international denominations of sparkling wine include [[Sekt]] or Schaumwein (Germany), [[Cava]] (Spain), and [[Spumante]] (Italy). '[[Semi Sparkling wine]]s' are [[Sparkling Wine]]s that contain less than 2.5 atmospheres of carbon dioxide at sea level and 20 degrees C. Some countries such as the UK impose a higher tax on fully sparkling wines. Examples of [[Semi-Sparkling wine]]s are [[Frizzante]] [[Italy]], [[Vino de Aguja]] [[Spain]], [[Petillant]] [[France]]. ===Dessert wine=== {{main|Dessert wine}} '''Dessert wines''' range from slightly sweet (with less than 50 g/L of sugar) to incredibly sweet wines (with over 400 g/L of sugar). [[late harvest wine|Late Harvest Wines]] such as [[Spätlese]] are made from grapes harvested well after they have reached maximum ripeness. Dried grape wines, such as [[Recioto]] and [[Vin Santo]] from [[Italy]] as well as [[Vinsanto]] from Santorini [[Greece]] , are made from grapes that have been partially raisined after harvesting. Botrytized wines are made from grapes infected by the mold [[Botrytis cinerea]] or [[noble rot]]. These include [[Sauternes (wine)|Sauternes]] from [[Bordeaux]], Numerous wines from [[Loire]] such as [[Bonnezeaux]] and [[Quarts de Chaume]], [[Tokaji|Tokaji Aszú]] from [[Hungary]] and Tokaj from [[Slovakia]], and [[Beerenauslese]] from [[Germany]] and [[Austria]]. [[Ice Wine|Eiswein]] is made from grapes that are harvested while they are frozen. ===Fortified wine=== {{main|Fortified wine}} '''Fortified wines''' are often sweeter, and generally more alcoholic wines that have had their fermentation process stopped by the addition of a spirit, such as [[brandy]], or have had additional spirit added after fermentation.<ref name="MacNeil pg 488"> K. MacNeil ''The Wine Bible'' pg 488 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345 </ref> Examples include [[port wine|Port]], [[Madeira wine|Madeira]] and [[Banyuls]]. ===Cooking wine=== '''Cooking wine''' or '''Cooking sherry''' refers to inexpensive [[wine|grape wine]] or [[rice wine]] (in [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] and other [[East Asia]]n cuisine). It is intended for use as an ingredient in food rather than as a beverage. Cooking wine typically available in North America is treated with [[salt]] as a [[preservative]] and [[food colouring]]. <ref name="MacNeil pg 87"> K. MacNeil ''The Wine Bible'' pg 87 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345 </ref> When a wine bottle is opened and the wine is exposed to [[oxygen]], a [[Fermentation (food)|fermentative]] process will transform the [[alcohol]] into [[acetic acid]] resulting in wine [[vinegar]]. The salt in cooking wine inhibits the growth of the acetic acid producing microorganisms. This preservation is important because a bottle of cooking wine may be opened and used occasionally over a long period of time. Cooking wines are convenient for cooks who use wine as an ingredient for cooking only rarely. However, they are not widely used by professional chefs, as they believe the added preservative significantly lowers the quality of the wine and resultantly the food made with that wine. Most professional chefs prefer to use inexpensive but drinkable wine for cooking, and this recommendation is given in many professional cooking textbooks as well as general cookbooks. Many chefs believe there is no excuse for using a low quality cooking wine for cooking when there are quality drinkable wines available at very low prices. Cooking wine is considered a wine of such poor quality, that it is unpalatable by itself and intended for use only in cooking. (There is a school of thought that advises against cooking with any wine one would find unacceptable to drink<ref name="MacNeil pg 86-87"> K. MacNeil ''The Wine Bible'' pg 86-87 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345</ref>; however, a recent study has found that inexpensive wine works as well as expensive wine in cooking.) <ref>{{cite news | first=JULIA | last=MOSKIN | coauthors= | title=It Boils Down to This: Cheap Wine Works Fine | date=[[2007-03-21]] | publisher=[[New York TImes]] | url =http://www.naplesnews.com/news/2006/dec/06/quest_youth_drives_craze_red_wine_pills/?neapolitan | work =New York Times | pages = | accessdate = 2007-06-21 | language = }}</ref> ==Vintages== {{main|Vintage}} A [[vintage]] wine is one made from grapes that were all, or primarily, grown in a single specified year, and are accordingly dated as such. In the United States for a wine to be vintage dated (and labeled with a country of origin or AVA, such as "[[Napa Valley]]" or "[[New Zealand]]") it must contain at least 95% of its volume from wines harvested in that year.<ref name="27 CFR 4.27"> Title 27, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) [http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=33fc0c0194b58b6fe95208945b5c637a&rgn=div5&view=text&node=27:1.0.1.1.2&idno=27#27:1.0.1.1.2.3.25.8 §4.27]</ref> If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA, such as "[[Napa County]]", it must contain at least 85% of its volume from wines harvested in that year.<ref name="27 CFR 4.27"> </ref> Many wines, particularly good quality red table wines, can improve in flavor with age if properly stored.<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica: wine</ref> Consequently, it is not uncommon for wine enthusiasts and traders to save bottles of an especially good vintage wine for future consumption. Most countries allow a vintage wine to include a portion of wine that is not from the labeled vintage. Recent research suggests [[vintage]] year may not be as significant to wine quality as currently thought.<ref>Roman L. Weil, [http://www.liquidasset.com/WEILVDQS.PDF Parker v. Prial: The Death of the Vintage Chart]</ref> Non-vintage wines, however, can be blended from a number of vintages for consistency, a process which allows wine makers to keep a reliable market image and also maintain sales even in bad vintage years.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each and every bottle will have a similar taste. Climatic factors can have a dramatic impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality<ref>[http://www.frenchscout.com/wine-vintages A primer on wine vintages] Frenchscout.com</ref>. Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage wines are only made in better-than-average years. ==Tasting== {{main|Wine tasting}} [[Image:Tempranillowine.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Judging colour is the first step in tasting a wine]] Wines may be classified by their primary impression on the drinker's [[palate]]. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and [[spice]]s. The [[sweetness of wine]] is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. [[Dry wine]], for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar. However, a technically dry wine might taste sweet when it is not. For example, fennel might taste sweet, but does not contain much sugar. Specific flavors may also be sensed, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules such as [[ester]]s and [[terpene]]s that grape juice and wine can contain. Tasters will also distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape (e.g., Cabernet Sauvignon and blackcurrant) and flavors that are imparted by other factors in wine making, either intentional or not. The most typical intentional flavor elements in wine are those that are imparted by aging in oak casks, and virtually every element of chocolate, vanilla, or coffee is actually a factor of oak and not the native grape<ref>[http://www.frenchscout.com/types-of-wine Major types of wine] Frenchscout.com</ref>. Banana flavors ([[isoamyl acetate]]) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as sweaty, barnyard, band-aid ([[4-ethylphenol]] and [[4-ethylguaiacol]]),<ref> [http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=193 Brettanomyces Monitoring by Analysis of 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol] ETS Laboratories Technical Bulletin</ref> and rotten egg ([[hydrogen sulfide]]).<ref> [http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=350 Sulfides in Wine] ETS Laboratories Technical Bulletin</ref> Some varietals can also have mineral flavor, due to the fact that some salts are soluble in water (as limestone), and thus absorbed by the vine. Wine aroma is the result of the interaction between components of the grapes and those produced during winemaking process, fermentation and aging.<ref>M. Jose Gomez-Miguez, Manuela Gomez-Miguez, Isabel M. Vicario and Francisco J. Heredia, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T8J-4JWFGMW-2/2/23595bac8aab73913dd9b4aed36bb8c9 Assessment of colour and aroma in white wines vinifications: Effects of grape maturity and soil type], Journal of Food Engineering, Volume 79, Issue 3, April 2007, Pages 758-764.</ref> Being served at room temperature increases the vaporization of aroma compounds, making the wine more aromatic. For some red wines that are already highly aromatic, like [[Chinon]] and [[Beaujolais]], the volatility of the wine makes it better served chilled.<ref name="Johnson & Robinson pg 44-45"> H. Johnson & J. Robinson ''The World Atlas of Wine'' pg 44-45 Mitchell Beazley ISBN 1840003324 </ref> ==Collecting== [[Image:Margaux94 1.jpg|right|thumb|155px|[[Château Margaux]], a [[first growth]] from the [[Bordeaux]] region of [[France]], is highly collectible.]] At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are amongst the most expensive of all food, and outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Such wines are considered by some as [[Veblen goods]]. The most common wines purchased for investment include [[Bordeaux wine|Bordeaux]], [[cult wine]]s and [[Port wine|Port]]. The reasons for these choices over thousands of other products and regions are: #They have a proven track record of holding well over time. #Their plateau drinking window (the period for maturity and approachability) is of many, many years, when the taster will be able to enjoy the wine at its best. #There is a record of quality and consensus amongst experts as to the uniqueness of the wines. Investment in fine wine has attracted a number of fraudsters who play on fine wine's exclusive image and their clients' ignorance of this sector of the wine market.<ref>McCoy, Elin. "Trophy Status and History Trump Taste in Fuss Over Old Wines." Bloomberg.com, March 20, 2007.</ref> [[Wine fraud]] scams often work by charging excessively high prices for the wine, while representing that it is a sound investment unaffected by [[economic cycle]]s. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing. False labeling is another dishonest practice commonly used. ==Production== {| class="wikitable" align="right" |+'''Wine production by country 2005'''<ref>[http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx FAO] production statistics</ref> ! Rank !! Country<br><small>(with link to wine article)</small> !! Production<br><small>([[tonnes]])</small> |- | 1 || {{flagicon|France}} [[French wine|France]] || 5,329,449 |- | 2 || {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Italian wine|Italy]] || 5,056,648 |- | 3 || {{flagicon|Spain}} [[Spanish wine|Spain]] || 3,934,140 |- | 4 || {{flagicon|United States of America}} [[American wine|United States of America]] || 2,232,000 |- | 5 || {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Argentine wine|Argentina]] || 1,564,000 |- | 6 || {{flagicon|China}} [[Chinese grape wine|China]] || 1,300,000 |- | 7 || {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Australian wine|Australia]] || 1,274,000 |- | 8 || {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[South African wine|South Africa]] || 1,157,895 |- | 9 || {{flagicon|Germany}} [[German wine|Germany]] || 1,014,700 |- | 10 || {{flagicon|Chile}} [[Chilean wine|Chile]] || 788,551 |- | 11 || {{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Portuguese wine|Portugal]] || 576,500 |- | 12 || {{flagicon|Romania}} [[Romanian wine|Romania]] || 575,000 |} {{main|List of wine producing countries|List of wine-producing regions}} The first ten grape producing countries in the world (2005) are: {| class="wikitable" ! Country !! q x 1,000 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Italy]] || 86,200 (13.14%) |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[France]] || 67,785 (10.33%) |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[USA]] || 63,275 (9.64%) |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Spain]] || 59,258 (9.03%) |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[China]] || 56,000 (8.53%) |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Turkey]] || 36,500 (5.56%) |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Argentina]] || 28,297 (4.31%) |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Iran]] || 28,000 (4.27%) |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Chile]] || 22,500 (3.43%) |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Australia]] || 20,265 (3.09%) |} TOTAL 656,134 Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty degrees north or south of the [[equator]]. The world's most southerly vineyards are in the [[Central Otago]] region of [[New Zealand]]'s [[South Island]] near the 45th parallel,<ref>Courtney, S., [http://www.wineoftheweek.com/regions/otago.html New Zealand Wine Regions - Central Otago], 2001, Retrieved 24 February 2007.</ref> and the most northerly is in [[Flen]], [[Sweden]], just above the 59th parallel.<ref> [http://www.beer100.com/history/winehistory.htm Wine History] Beer100.com] </ref> Evolution of wine production in the European Union in [[2005]] and [[2006]] Forecasts [[2006]] (millions of hectolitres) #&nbsp;[[Italy]] : 52036 #&nbsp;[[France]] : 51700 #&nbsp;[[Spain]] : 39301 #&nbsp;[[Germany]] : 8995 #&nbsp;[[Portugal]] : 7390 #&nbsp;[[Greece]] : 3908 Forecasts 2005 (millions of hectolitres) #&nbsp;[[France]] : 52105 #&nbsp;[[Italy]] : 50562 #&nbsp;[[Spain]] : 34789 #&nbsp;[[Germany]] : 9256 #&nbsp;[[Portugal]] : 7266 #&nbsp;[[Greece]] : 3997 ===Exporting countries=== The 15 largest exporting nations (2005 figures) – [[Italy]], [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Australia]], [[Chile]], the [[United States of America]], [[Germany]], [[South Africa]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Moldova]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Hungary]], [[Croatia]] and [[Argentina]]. [[California]] produces about 90% of the wine in the United States. In 2000, [[Great Britain]] imported more wine from [[Australia]] than from France for the first time in history. First ten wine exporting countries in [[2005]] {| class="wikitable" ! Country !! Thousands of Hectolitres |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Italy]] || 15,100 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Spain]] || 14,439 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[France]] || 13,900 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Australia]] || 7,019 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Chile]] || 4,209 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[USA]] || 3,482 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Germany]] || 2,970 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[South Africa]] || 2,818 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Portugal]] || 2,800 |- bgcolor= |align=center| [[Moldova]] || 2,425 |} TOTAL 78,729 The leaders in export volume by market share in [[2003]] were: * {{flagicon|France}} [[French wine|France]], 22% * {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Italian wine|Italy]], 20% * {{flagicon|Spain}} [[Spanish wine|Spain]], 16% * {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Australian wine|Australia]], 8% * {{flagicon|Chile}} [[Chilean wine|Chile]], 6% * {{flagicon|United States}} [[American wine|United States]], 5% * {{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Portuguese wine|Portugal]], 4% * {{flagicon|Germany}} [[German wine|Germany]], 4% ==Uses== [[Image:Wine consumption world map.png|thumb|300px|Wine yearly consumption, per capita: {{legend|#eeeeee|less than 1 litre.}} {{legend|#eed4d3|from 1 to 7 litres.}} {{legend|#dea2a0|from 7 to 15 litres.}} {{legend|#ae6f6d|from 15 to 30 litres.}} {{legend|#5f0400|More than 30 litres.}}]] Wine is a popular and important [[beverage]] that accompanies and enhances a wide range of [[Cuisine of Europe|European]] and [[Mediterranean diet|Mediterranean]]-style [[cuisine]]s, from the simple and traditional to the most sophisticated and complex. Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a beverage, but as a flavor agent (primarily in [[stock]]s and [[braising]]) in which its acidity lends balance to rich [[savory]] or [[sweet]] dishes. Red, white and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are also known as light wines, because they only contain approximately 10-14% [[alcohol]]. (Alcohol percentages are usually by volume.) The [[apéritif]] and [[dessert wine]]s contain 14-20% alcohol, and are fortified to make them richer and sweeter than the light wines. The labels on certain bottles of wine suggest that they need to be set aside for an hour before drinking to ''breathe'', while other wines are recommended to be drunk as soon as they are opened. [[Decanting]] is a controversial subject in wine. In addition to aeration, decanting removes some of the bitter sediments from the bottle. Sediment is more common in older bottles but younger wines benefit more from the aeration.<ref name="Johnson & Robinson pg 46"> H. Johnson & J. Robinson ''The World Atlas of Wine'' pg 46 Mitchell Beazley ISBN 1840003324 </ref> During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes" the flavors and makes them taste smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Wines that are older generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Breathing, however, does not benefit all wines, and should not therefore be taken to the extreme. In general, wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it may be aerated, if at all. ===Religious uses=== {{seealso|Kosher wine|Christianity and alcohol|Islam and alcohol}} The use of wine in religious ceremonies is common to many cultures and regions. [[Libation]]s often included wine, and the [[Dionysian Mysteries|religious mysteries]] of [[Dionysus]] involved wine as a sacrament of [[entheogen]], a fact denounced by [[Justin Martyr]] as a diabolical mockery of Christ: <blockquote>when they tell that Bacchus, son of [[Iuppiter|Jupiter]], was begotten by intercourse with [[Semele]], and that he was the discoverer of the vine; and when they relate, that being torn in pieces, and having died, he rose again, and ascended to heaven; and when they introduce wine into his mysteries, do I not perceive that the devil has imitated the prophecy announced by the patriarch Jacob, and recorded by Moses? [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-dialoguetrypho.html ''Dialogue with Trpypho'' ch. 64] </blockquote> Wine plays an integral part of [[halakha|Jewish laws and traditions]]. The [[Kiddush]], a blessing said before starting the first and second [[Shabbat]] or festival meals and [[Havdallah]], a blessing said after the Shabbat or festival are required to be said over wine if available. On Pesach ([[Passover]]) during the Seder, it is also required to drink four cups of wine.<ref>[http://www.jewfaq.org/holidaya.htm Jewish holidays FAQ]</ref> In the [[Tabernacle (Judaism)|Tabernacle]] and in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} A blessing over wine said before indulging in the drink is: "Baruch atah Adonai elohaynu melech ha-olam, boray p’ree hagafen" (Praised be the Eternal, Ruler of the universe, who makes the fruit of the vine). In [[Christian]] services wine is used in a sacred ritual called [[Mass (liturgy)#The Communion rite|Communion]] or the [[Eucharist]], which originates in [[Gospel]] accounts of the [[Last Supper]] when [[Jesus]] blesses the bread and wine and commands his followers to "do this in remembrance of me." Wine was used in the rite by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in [[1869]] when [[Methodism|Methodist]] [[minister of religion|minister]]-turned-[[dentist]] [[Thomas Bramwell Welch]] applied new [[pasteurization]] techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of [[grape juice]]. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Some Christians who were part of the growing [[temperance movement]] pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and there remains an ongoing debate between some American [[Protestant]] [[Christian denomination|denomination]]s as to whether wine can or should be used in moderation for the Eucharist or for merriment. Outside the United States, most Protestant groups use wine.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The use of wine is forbidden under [[Islam]]. [[Iran]] used to have a thriving wine industry that disappeared after the Islamic revolution in 1979.<ref>Tait, R. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1590302,00.html End of the vine]. The Guardian Unlimited, October 2005.</ref> ==Health effects== <!-- PLEASE ENSURE THAT ALL HEALTH BENEFIT CLAIMS IN THIS SECTION ARE REFERENCED OR THEY MAY BE REMOVED --> {{nutritionalvalue | name=Red table wine | kJ=355 | fat=0.0 g | protein=0.1 g | carbs=2.6 g | sugars=0.6 g | alcohol=10.6 g | source_usda=1 | noRDA=1 | right=1 | note=10.6 g alcohol is 13 vol%.<br/>100 g wine is 100 mL (3.4 fl oz.)<br/>Sugar and alcohol content can vary.}} {{seealso|Alcohol consumption and health|Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs}} The [[health effects]] of wine (and [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] in general) are the subject of considerable ongoing study.<ref>J.B. German and R.L. Walzem, [http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146%2Fannurev.nutr.20.1.561 The health benefits of wine], Ann Rev Nutr 20 (2000), pp. 561–593.</ref> In the USA, a boom in red wine consumption was initiated in the [[1990s]] by '[[60 Minutes]]', and other news reports on the [[French paradox]]. The French paradox refers to the lower incidence of [[coronary heart disease]] in France than in the USA despite high levels of [[saturated fat]] in the traditional French diet. Epidemiologists suspect that this difference is attributed to the high consumption of wines by the French, however this suspicion is based on limited scientific evidence. Population studies have observed a [[J curve]] association between wine consumption and the risk of heart disease.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://nutra-smart.net/redwine.htm |title=Red Wine |accessdate=2007-07-17 |last=Stuart J. |first=Adams |work=nutra-smart.net }}</ref> This means that abstainers and heavy drinkers have an elevated risk, whilst moderate drinkers have a lower risk.<ref> [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/AlcoholAndHealth.html Alcohol and Health] </ref> Population studies have also found that moderate consumption of other alcoholic beverages may be cardioprotective, though the association is considerably stronger for wine. These studies have found a protective effect from both red wine as well as white wine, though evidence from laboratory studies suggests that red wine may possess superior health benefits including prevention of cancer due to the fact red wine contains more polyphenols than white wine due to the production process.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=23592 |title= Cancer Prevention and Red Wine |accessdate=2007-07-17 |work=MedicineNet }}</ref> A chemical called [[resveratrol]] is thought to be at least partly responsible for red wines' health benefits, as it has been shown to exert a range of both cardioprotective as well as chemoprotective mechanisms in animal studies.<ref>Beata Olas, Barbara Wachowicz, Joanna Saluk-Juszczak and Tomasz Zielinski, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T1C-475FSC5-4/2/11536afd0dc132708024f4105cb42270 Effect of resveratrol, a natural polyphenolic compound, on platelet activation induced by endotoxin or thrombin], Thrombosis Research, Volume 107, Issues 3-4, 15 August 2002, Pages 141-145.</ref> Resveratrol is produced naturally by grape skins in response to fungal infection, which includes exposure to [[yeast]] during [[Fermentation (food)|fermentation]]. As white wine has minimal contact with grape skins during this process, it generally contains lower levels of resveratrol.<ref>Lucie Fremont, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T99-3YJYV42-1/2/f3e6d1a78598fb9c6de3e20b58bdc475 Biological effects of resveratrol], Life Sciences, Volume 66, Issue 8, 14 January 2000, Pages 663-673.</ref> Other beneficial compounds in wine include other [[polyphenol]]s, [[antioxidant]]s, and [[flavonoid]]s.<ref>D.W. de Lange, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T1C-4KCXJ95-2/2/78efd7cd7ed0ce19403d64d649518c2a From red wine to polyphenols and back: A journey through the history of the French Paradox], Thrombosis Research, Volume 119, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 403-406.</ref> Red wines from South-West France and Sardinia Italy have been found to have the highest levels of procyanidins - the compounds in grape seeds responsible for making red wine good for the heart. Wines from south-west France and Sardinia have between two and four times as much procyanidins as other red wines. Procyanidins suppress the synthesis of a peptide called endothelin-1 that constricts blood vessels.<ref> {{cite journal|title=Oenology: Red wine procyanidins and vascular health|journal=Nature|date=|first=R.|last=Corder|coauthors=W. Mullen, N. Q. Khan, S. C. Marks, E. G. Wood, M. J. Carrier and A. Crozier|volume=444|issue=566|pages=|id= {{doi|10.1038/444566a}}|url=|format=|accessdate=2007-07-17}}</ref> A 2007 study found that both red and white wines are effective anti-bacterial agents against strains of <em>Streptococcus</em>.<ref> {{cite journal|title= Antibacterial Activity of Red and White Wine against Oral Streptococci|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|date=2007|first=M.|last=Daglia|coauthors=A. Papetti, P. Grisoli, C. Aceti, C. Dacarro, and G. Gazzani|volume=55|issue=13|pages=|id= |url=http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/jafcau/2007/55/i13/abs/jf070352q.html|format=|accessdate=2007-07-17}}.</ref> Interestingly, wine has traditionally been used to treat wounds in some parts of the world.<ref>[http://www.null-hypothesis.co.uk/science/strange-but-true/joking/ham_cheese_wine_breakfast_perfection Wine has anti-bacterial properties]</ref> Whilst evidence from both laboratory studies as well as [[epidemiology]] (observational studies) suggests wines' cardioprotective effect, no evidence from controlled experiments - of which long-term studies are still ongoing - currently exists to determine the specific effect of wine or other alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Moreover, excessive consumption of alcohol including wine can cause some diseases including [[cirrhosis]] of the liver and alcoholism.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/quickstats/general_info.htm General Information on Alcohol Use and Health], CDC, Retrieved 24 February 2007.</ref> Also the [[American Heart Association]] cautions people "''not to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation''".<ref>[http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4422 Alcohol, Wine and Cardiovascular Disease], American Heart Association, Retrieved February 2007.</ref> ==Adverse Reactions to Wine== Some people report negative reactions to various types of wine, which can include severe [[headache]]s, [[nausea]], and even [[anaphylaxis|anaphylactic]] reactions. Although these symptoms are unlikely to be a result of [[food allergy|allergy]], they could be caused by certain compounds in wine.<ref>[http://www.wineint.com/story.asp?storycode=1120 Allergic Reactions to Wine], Wine International, Retrieved 05 June 2007</ref> '''Sulphites''' [[Sulphites]] are present in all wines and are formed as a natural product of the fermentation process. Additionally, many wine producers add [[sulphur dioxide]] in order to help preserve the wine. The level of added sulphites varies, and some wines have been marketed with low sulphite content. <ref>[http://www.winesofcanada.com/larchhill2.html Ageing and Storing Wines], Wines of Canada, Retrieved 05 June 2007</ref> Sulphites in wine are not a problem for most people, although some people, particularly people with asthma, can experience adverse reactions to them. Sulphur Dioxide is also added to many other foods though, for example in dried [[apricot]]s and Orange Juice. '''Histamines''' [[Histamine]] is a chemical released by the body in the true allergic response, and it is also found in wine (red wine more so than white). It is thought by some people that histamine is a possible cause of these adverse reactions, although there is no clear evidence of this. <ref>[http://www.wineint.com/story.asp?storycode=1120 Allergic Reactions to Wine], Wine International, Retrieved 05 June 2007</ref> == Packaging & Storage == [[Image:Corks019.jpg|thumb|Assorted wine corks]] {{seealso|Cork (material)|Alternative wine closures|Wine bottle|Box wine}} Most wines are sold in [[wine bottle|glass bottles]] and are sealed using a [[cork (material)|cork]]. Recently a growing number of wine producers have begun sealing their product with alternative closures such as [[screwcap]]s or synthetic [[plastic]] "corks". Some wines are packaged in heavy plastic bags, which are typically packaged further within cardboard boxes, similar to the packaging of [[breakfast cereal]]. One advantage of boxed-wine is that it can stay fresh for up to a month after opening, while bottled wine will start to oxidize immediately after opening. The contents of [[boxed wine]] are typically accessed via a tap on the side of the box. In addition to being less expensive, alternative closures prevent [[cork taint]], although alternative closures can also cause other types of wine spoilage. [[Wine cellar]]s offer the opportunity to protect alcoholic beverages from potentially harmful external influences, providing darkness and a constant temperature. Wine is a natural, perishable food product. Left exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity, all types of wine, including red, white, sparkling, and fortified, can spoil. When properly stored, wines not only maintain their quality but many actually improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they mature. == Professions == * [[Cooper (profession)|Cooper]]: Someone who makes wooden barrels, casks, and other similar wooden objects. * [[Négociant]]: A wine merchant who assembles the produce of smaller growers and winemakers, and sells them under his own name. Sometimes, this term is simply a synonym for wine merchant. * [[Vintner]]: A wine merchant or producer. * [[Sommelier]]: A person in a restaurant who specializes in wine, and is usually in charge of assembling the wine list, staff education and making wine suggestions to customers * [[Winemaker]]: A person who makes wine. May or may not be formally trained. * [[Garagista]]: One who makes wine in a garage (or basement, or home, etc.) An amateur wine maker. Also used in a derogatory way, when speaking of small scale operations of recent inception, or without pedigree(ie. small scale winemakers of [[Bordeaux]]). * [[Oenologist]]: Wine scientist or wine chemist, student of [[oenology]]. A winemaker may be trained as oenologist, but often instead uses a consultant oenologist * [[Viticulturist]]: A person who specializes in the science of the grapevines themselves. Can also be someone who manages a vineyard (decides how to prune, how much to irrigate, how to deal with pests, etc.) ==Film and television== * ''[[A Good Year]]'', 2006. Ridley Scott directs Russell Crowe in an adaptation of [[Peter Mayle]]'s novel. * ''[[Mondovino]]'', USA/France 2004: A documentary film directed by American film maker, [[Jonathan Nossiter]], explaining the impact of [[globalization]] on the various wine-producing regions. * ''[[Sideways]]'', 2004: A comedy/drama film, directed by Alexander Payne, with the tagline: "In search of wine. In search of women. In search of themselves." Wine, particularly [[Pinot Noir]], plays a central role. *''[[A Walk in the Clouds]]'' 1995, is a love story set in a traditional vineyard showcasing different moments in the production of wine. *''[[French Kiss]]'', 1995. Meg Ryan and [[Kevin Kline]] act in this romantic comedy. Kline's character wants to have his own vineyard since he comes from a family of winemakers. The character has even made his own aroma sampling kit. * ''[[Falcon Crest]]'', USA 1981-1990: A [[CBS]] primetime soap opera about the fictional Falcon Crest winery and the family who owned it, set in the fictional Tuscany Valley of California. The series was very popular and a wine named Falcon Crest even went on the market. * ''[[Crush]]'', USA 2007:Produced & Directed by Bret Lyman. A documentary short that explores the 2006 grape harvest and crush in California's wine country. Features Winemaker Richard Bruno. == References == {{reflist|2}} == Further reading == <div class="references-small"> * {{cite book | title = From Persia to Napa: Wine at the Persian Table | authorlink = Najmieh Batmanglij | last = Batmanglij | first = Najmieh | location = Washington, DC | publisher = Mage Publishers | id = ISBN 1-933823-00-3 | year = 2006 }} * {{cite book | last = Edell, M.D. | first = Dean | title = Eat, Drink and be Merry: America’s Doctor Tells You Why the Health Experts are Wrong | year = 1999 | publisher = HarperCollins | location = NY | pages = 191-192 }} * {{ cite book | title = Quiz of wine | authorlink = Stengel Kilien | last = Stengel | first = Kilien | publisher = Dunod | year = 2007 }} * {{cite book | last = Foulkes | first = Christopher | year = 2001 | title = Larousse Encyclopedia of Wine | publisher = Larousse | id = ISBN 2-03-585013-4 }} * {{ cite book | title = Hugh Johnson's Wine Companion | authorlink = Hugh Johnson | last = Johnson | first = Hugh | publisher = Mitchell Beazley | edition = 5th edition | year = 2003 | quote = The Encyclopaedia of Wines, Vineyards and Winemakers }} * {{ cite book | title = Wine for Dummies | last = McCarthy | first = Ed | coauthors = Mary Ewing-Mulligan, Piero Antinori | publisher = HarperCollins | id = ISBN 0-470-04579-5 | year = 2006 }} * {{ cite book | title = Oenologie crus des vins | last = Stengel | first = Kilien | publisher = Villette | id = ISBN 978-2-86547-080-8 | year = 2007 }} * {{ cite book | title = The Wine Bible | last = MacNeil | first = Karen | publisher = Workman | id = ISBN 1-56305-434-5 | year = 2001 }} * {{ cite book | title = Ancient Egyptian materials and technology | first = Paul T | last = Nicholson | coauthors = I. Shaw | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | id = ISBN 0-521-45257-0 | year = 2000 | quote = Grapes and wine in ancient Egypt; includes critique of chemical evidence for wine residues. }} * {{cite book | title = A Grape by Grape Visual Guide to the Contemporary Wine World | first = Stuart | last = Pigott | publisher = Mitchell Beazley }} * {{ cite book | title = The Oxford Companion to Wine | edition = 3rd edition | authorlink = Jancis Robinson | last = Robinson | first = Jancis | location = Oxford | publisher = OUP | id = ISBN 0-19-860990-6 | year = 2006 }} * {{ cite book | title = Judgment of Paris: California vs. France and the Historic 1976 Paris Tasting the Revolutionized Wine | authorlink = George M. Taber | first = George M. | last = Taber | location = NY | publisher = Scribner | year = 2005 }} * {{ cite book | title = Windows on the World Complete Wine Course | last = Zraly |first = Kevin | publisher = Sterling | id = ISBN 1-4027-3928-1 | year = 2006 }} * {{ cite book | title = Domestication of plants in the Old World | last = Zohary | first = Daniel | coauthors = Maria Hopf | location = Oxford | publisher = OUP | id = ISBN 0-19-850356-3 | year = 2000 | quote = Authoritative source on evolution and domestication of the grapevine. }} </div> ==See also== {{sisterlinks}} * [[Glossary of wine terms]] * [[Wine grapes]] * [[List of wine personalities]] * [[List of vineyards and wineries]] * [[Polyphenol]] * [[Varietal]] * [[Wine accessory]] * [[Vegan wine]] {{Wines}} {{Wine by country}} [[Category:Wine|*]]

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