Difference between revisions of "Taxus baccata"

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{{Taxobox
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{{SPlantbox
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| color = lightgreen
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|familia=Taxaceae
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| name = ''Taxus baccata''
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|genus=Taxus
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| status = LR/lc
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|species=baccata
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| image = TXbaccata.jpg
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|taxo_author=L.
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| image_width = 240px
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|common_name=Common Yew, English Yew
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| image_caption = ''Taxus baccata'' (European Yew) shoot with mature and immature cones
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|name_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
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| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
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|habit=tree
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| divisio = [[Pinophyta]]
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|Max ht box=50
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| classis = [[Pinophyta|Pinopsida]]
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|Max ht metric=ft
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| ordo = [[Pinales]]
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|height_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
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| familia = [[Taxaceae]]
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|Max wd box=25
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| genus = ''[[Taxus]]''
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|Max wd metric=ft
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| species = '''''T. baccata'''''
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|width_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
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| binomial = ''Taxus baccata''
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|poisonous=parts are toxic
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| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
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|poison_ref=http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Taxus+baccata
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|exposure=sun
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|sun_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
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|features=evergreen, edible, fruit
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|Temp Metric=°F
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|min_zone=5
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|usda_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
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|max_zone=10
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|image=TXbaccata.jpg
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|image_width=240
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|image_caption=''Taxus baccata'' (European Yew)
 
}}
 
}}
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'''''Taxus baccata''''' is a [[Pinophyta|conifer]] native to western, central and southern [[Europe]], northwest [[Africa]], northern [[Iran]] and southwest [[Asia]].<ref name=rushforth>Rushforth, K. (1999). ''Trees of Britain and Europe''. Collins ISBN 0-00-220013-9.</ref> It is the tree originally known as '''yew''', though with other related trees becoming known, it may be now known as the '''common yew''', or '''European yew'''.
  
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'''''Taxus baccata''''' is a [[Pinophyta|conifer]] native to western, central and southern [[Europe]], northwest [[Africa]], northern [[Iran]] and southwest [[Asia]].<ref name=rushforth>Rushforth, K. (1999). ''Trees of Britain and Europe''. Collins ISBN 0-00-220013-9.</ref> Originally and still widely known in English as just '''Yew''', the later discovery of other very similar related species has led to qualification as '''European Yew''', '''Common Yew''' or '''English Yew''' where detail of which species of ''[[Taxus]]'' is required.  
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==Description==
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It is a small- to medium-sized [[evergreen]] [[tree]], growing {{convert|10|-|20|m}} (exceptionally up to {{convert|28|m|disp=/|abbr=on}}) tall, with a trunk up to {{convert|2|m}} (exceptionally {{convert|4|m|abbr=on|disp=/}}) diameter. The [[bark]] is thin, scaly brown, coming off in small flakes aligned with the stem. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[lanceolate]], flat, dark green, {{convert|1|-|4|cm}} long and {{convert|2|-|3|mm}} broad, arranged spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows either side of the stem, except on erect leading shoots where the spiral arrangement is more obvious. The leaves are highly poisonous.<ref name=rushforth/><ref name=afm2>Mitchell, A. F. (1972). ''Conifers in the British Isles''. Forestry Commission Booklet 33.</ref>
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The [[conifer cone|seed cones]] are highly modified, each cone containing a single [[seed]] {{convert|4|-|7|mm}} long partly surrounded by a modified scale which develops into a soft, bright red [[berry]]-like structure called an [[aril]], {{convert|8|-|15|mm}} long and wide and open at the end. The arils are mature 6–9 months after pollination, and with the seed contained are eaten by [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]], [[waxwing]]s and other [[bird]]s, which disperse the hard seeds undamaged in their droppings; maturation of the arils is spread over 2–3 months, increasing the chances of successful seed dispersal. The seeds themselves are extremely poisonous and bitter, but are opened and eaten by some bird species including [[Hawfinch]]es<ref>http://wbrc.org.uk/WorcRecd/Issue%2020/hawfinch1.htm</ref> and [[Great Tit]]s.<ref>http://www.bto.org/gbw/PDFs/FocusOn/Focus_GRETI.pdf</ref>  The aril is not poisonous, and is gelatinous and very sweet tasting. The male cones are globose, {{convert|3|-|6|mm}} diameter, and shed their [[pollen]] in early spring. It is mostly [[Plant sexuality|dioecious]], but occasional individuals can be variably [[Plant sexuality|monoecious]], or change sex with time.<ref name=rushforth/><ref name=afm2/><ref name=DJ>Dallimore, W., & Jackson, A. B. (1966). ''A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae'' 4th ed. Arnold.</ref>
  
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==Description==
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It is relatively slow growing, but can be very long-lived, with the maximum recorded trunk diameter of 4 metres probably only being reached in about 2,000 years. The potential age of yews is impossible to determine accurately and is subject to much dispute. There is rarely any wood as old as the entire tree, while the boughs themselves often hollow with age, making [[dendrochronology|ring counts]] impossible. There are confirmed claims as high as 5,000-9,500 years,<ref name=lewington>Lewington, A., & Parker, E. (1999). ''Ancient Trees: Trees that Live for a Thousand Years''. London: Collins & Brown Ltd. ISBN 1-85585-704-9</ref> but other evidence based on growth rates and archaeological work of surrounding structures suggests the oldest trees (such as the [[Fortingall Yew]] in [[Perthshire]], [[Scotland]]) are more likely to be in the range of 2,000 years.<ref name=harte>Harte, J. (1996). How old is that old yew? ''At the Edge'' 4: 1-9. Available [http://www.indigogroup.co.uk/edge/oldyews.htm online].</ref><ref name=kinmonth>Kinmonth, F. (2006). Ageing the yew - no core, no curve? ''International Dendrology Society Yearbook'' 2005: 41-46.</ref> Even with this lower estimate, ''Taxus baccata'' is the longest living plant in Europe.
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It is a small to medium-sized [[evergreen]] [[tree]], growing 10-20 m (exceptionally up to 28 m) tall, with a trunk up to 2 m (exceptionally 4 m) diameter. The [[bark]] is thin, scaly brown, coming off in small flakes aligned with the stem. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[lanceolate]], flat, dark green, 1-4 cm long and 2-3 mm broad, arranged spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows either side of the stem, except on erect leading shoots where the spiral arrangement is more obvious.<ref name=rushforth/><ref name=afm2>Mitchell, A. F. (1972). ''Conifers in the British Isles''. Forestry Commission Booklet 33.</ref>
 
  
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[[Image:YewSeed.jpg|left|thumb|European Yew cone (detail)]]
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{{Inc|
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The [[conifer cone|seed cones]] are highly modified, each cone containing a single [[seed]] 4-7 mm long partly surrounded by a modified scale which develops into a soft, bright red [[berry]]-like structure called an [[aril]], 8-15 mm long and wide and open at the end. The arils are mature 6-9 months after pollination, and with the seed contained are eaten by [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]], [[waxwing]]s and other [[bird]]s, which disperse the hard seeds undamaged in their droppings; maturation of the arils is spread over 2-3 months, increasing the chances of successful seed dispersal. The male cones are globose, 3-6 mm diameter, and shed their [[pollen]] in early spring. It is mostly [[Plant sexuality|dioecious]], but occasional individuals can be variably [[Plant sexuality|monoecious]], or change sex with time.<ref name=rushforth/><ref name=afm2/><ref name=dj>Dallimore, W., & Jackson, A. B. (1966). ''A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae'' 4th ed. Arnold.</ref>
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Taxus baccata, Linn. Tree, attaining 60 ft., with a usually short trunk, occasionally 8 ft. or more in diam.: bark reddish, flaky, deeply fissured in old trees: branches spreading, forming a broad, low head; branchlets somewhat pendulous: lvs. 2-ranked, linear and usually falcate, shortly acuminate, with prominent midrib, dark green above, pale beneath, 3/4 – 1 1/4 in. long or shorter in some varieties: fr. 1/3 – 1/2 in. across, with almost globose disk, about a third longer than the broadly ellipsoid brown seed 1/4 in. long. Eu. and N. Afr. to Himalayas.—Many garden forms have originated in cult.; the following are the most important: Var. adpressa, Carr. (T. parvifolia, Wender. T. brevifolia, Hort., not Nutt. T. tardiva, Laws. T. baccata tardiva, Pilger). Shrub or low tree of irregular habit, with long spreading branches: lvs. oblong, obtusish, mucronulate, 1/3 – 1/2 in. long: disk of fr. shorter than the seed. Very distinct form. Var. adpressa erecta, Nichols. (var. adpressa stricta, Beissn.), has the foliage of the preceding, but erect branches forming a columnar bush. Var. aurea, Carr. (var. elvastonensis aurea, Beissn.). Lvs. golden yellow, more brightly colored at the tips and margin. This form has proved hardier than the type in New England. Var. argentea, Loud. (var. elegantissima, Hort.). Lvs. striped straw-yellow or sometimes whitish. Var. Dovastonii, Loud. Branches wide-spreading, nodding at the tips: lvs. dull green, short and abruptly mucronulate. G. 3:89. A very handsome form. Var. Dovastonii aureo-variegata, Beissn., is a form with the lvs. variegated with yellow. Var. erecta, Loud. (var. stricta, Hort.). Bushy form, with slender, upright branches and branchlets: lvs. narrower and smaller than in the type. Var. ericoides, Carr. (var. microphylla, Hort.). Dwarf form, with slender branches and small and very narrow, pointed leaves. Var. fastigiata, Loud. (T. hibernica, Hort.). Strictly fastigiate form, with stout crowded upright branches and branchlets: lvs. spirally arranged around the branches, dark glossy green. One of the most desirable evergreens of columnar habit for formal gardens. Var. fastigiata variegata, Carr. Less vigorous and more tender: lvs. marked yellowish white. Var. fastigiata aurea, Standish. Young growth golden yellow. Var. Fisheri, Hort. Some of the lvs. deep yellow, others green. Var. glauca, Carr. Vigorous form, with longer and narrower lvs. dark green above and with a glaucous bluish tint beneath. Var. Jacksonii, Gord. (var. pendula, Hort.). Branches spreading, pendulous at the tips, with more or less incurved lvs. Var. luteo-baccata, Pilger (var. fructu luteo, Loud.). With yellow fr. Var. procumbens, Loud. Prostrate shrub, with elongated and much ramified branches. Var. repandens, Hort. A low form with long wide-spreading branches and dull bluish green lvs. Var. Washingtonii, Beissn. Vigorous form, with longer lvs., partly colored golden yellow.
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}}
  
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It is relatively slow growing, but can be very long-lived, with the maximum recorded trunk diameter of 4 m probably only being reached in about 2,000 years. The potential age of yews is impossible to determine accurately and is subject to much dispute. There is rarely any wood as old as the entire tree, while the boughs themselves often hollow with age, making [[dendrochronology|ring counts]] impossible. There are unconfirmed claims as high as 5,000-9,500 years,<ref name=lewington>Lewington, A., & Parker, E. (1999). ''Ancient Trees: Trees that Live for a Thousand Years''. London: Collins & Brown Ltd. ISBN 1-85585-704-9</ref> but other evidence based on growth rates and archaeological work of surrounding structures suggests the oldest trees (such as the [[Fortingall Yew]] in [[Perthshire]], [[Scotland]]) are more likely to be in the range of 2,000 years.<ref name=harte>Harte, J. (1996). How old is that old yew? ''At the Edge'' 4: 1-9. Available [http://www.indigogroup.co.uk/edge/oldyews.htm online].</ref><ref name=kinmonth>Kinmonth, F. (2006). Ageing the yew - no core, no curve? ''International Dendrology Society Yearbook'' 2005: 41-46.</ref> Even with this lower estimate, ''Taxus baccata'' is the longest living plant in Europe.
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==Cultivation==
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An evergreen Tree growing to 15m by 10m at a slow rate.
  
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All parts of the tree are [[toxic]], except the bright red aril surrounding the seed, enabling ingestion and dispersal by birds. The major toxin is the alkaloid [[taxine]]. The foliage remains toxic even when wilted or dried. [[Horse]]s have the lowest tolerance, with a lethal dose of 200–400 mg/kg body weight, but [[cattle]], [[pig]]s, and other livestock are only slightly less vulnerable.<ref name=>Tiwary, A. K., Puschner, B., Kinde, H., & Tor, E. R. (2005). Diagnosis of Taxus (Yew) poisoning in a horse. ''J. Vet. Diagn. Invest''. 17: 252–255.</ref> Symptoms include staggering gait, muscle tremors, convulsions, collapse, difficulty breathing, and eventually heart failure. However, death occurs so rapidly that many times the symptoms are missed. The tree should be fenced off or removed from pasture land to prevent grazing animals from consuming it.
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It is hardy to zone 6 and is frost tender. It is in leaf all year, in flower from March to April, and the seeds ripen from September to November. The flowers are dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is required) and are pollinated by Wind. The plant is not self-fertile. It is noted for attracting wildlife.
  
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==Etymology==
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The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very acid and very alkaline soils. It can grow in full shade (deep woodland) semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can tolerates strong winds but not maritime exposure. It can tolerate atmospheric pollution.
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The word ''yew'' is from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*īwa-'', possibly originally a loanword from [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] ''ivos'', compare [[Irish language|Irish]] ''[[iodhadh|ēo]]'', [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''ywen'', French ''[[:fr:If (Botanique)|if]]''; see [[Eihwaz]] for a discussion). ''Baccata'' is Latin for ''bearing berries''.
 
  
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==Uses and traditions==
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A very easy plant to grow, it is extremely tolerant of cold and heat, sunny and shady positions, wet and dry soils, exposure and any pH[200]. Thrives in almost any soil, acid or alkaline, as long as it is well-drained[1, 11, 200]. Grows well in heavy clay soils. Sensitive to soil compaction by roads etc[186, 200]. Very shade tolerant[17, 81]. Tolerates urban pollution[200]. In general they are very tolerant of exposure, though plants are damaged by severe maritime exposure[K]. A very cold hardy plant when dormant, tolerating temperatures down to about -25°c[200]. The fresh young shoots in spring, however, can be damaged by frosts[186, K]. Plants are dioecious, though they sometimes change sex and monoecious trees are sometimes found[81, 186]. Male and female trees must be grown if fruit and seed is required[K]. The fruit is produced mainly on the undersides of one-year old branches[200]. A very long lived tree[1, 7, 11, 185], one report suggests that a tree in Perthshire is 1500 years old, making it the oldest plant in Britain. Another report says that trees can be up to 4000 years old[11]. It is, however, slow growing and usually takes about 20 years to reach a height of 4.5 metres[186]. Young plants occasionally grow 30cm in a year but this soon tails off and virtually no height increase is made after 100 years[185]. A very ornamental tree, there are many named varieties[200]. Very resistant to honey fungus[8, 88, 200], but susceptible to phytopthera root rot[81, 88]. The bark is very soft and branches or even the whole tree can be killed if the bark is removed by constant friction such as by children climbing the tree[186]. Plants produce very little fibrous root and should be planted in their final positions when still small[200]. The fruit is greatly relished by thrushes[186].
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In the ancient [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]] world, the yew tree (''*eburos'') had extraordinary importance; a passage by [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] narrates that Catuvolcus, chief of the [[Eburones]], literally "farmers of the yew", poisoned himself with yew rather than submit to Rome (''Gallic Wars'' 6: 31). Similarly, [[Florus]] notes that when the [[Cantabri]]ans were under siege by the legate Gaius Furnius in [[22 BC]], most of them took their lives either by the sword or by fire or by a poison extracted ''ex arboribus taxeis'', that is, from the yew tree (2: 33, 50-51). In a similar way, [[Orosius]] notes that when the [[Galician_People|Gallaecians]] were besieged at ''Mons Medullius'', they preferred to die by their own swords or by the yew tree poison rather than surrender (6, 21, 1.).
 
  
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[[Image:English Yew 600.jpg|left|thumb|An Irish Yew (''Taxus baccata'' 'Fastigiata') planted at [[Kenilworth Castle]]]]
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===Propagation===
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The yew is often found in [[church]]yards from [[England]] and [[Ireland]] to [[Galicia]]; some of these trees are exceptionally large (over 3 m diameter) and may be up to 2,000 years old, though few if any predate the churches they are beside.<ref name=harte/><ref name=kinmonth/> Many believe that the enormous sacred evergreen at the [[Temple at Uppsala]] was a yew{{Fact|date=October 2007}}. The Christian church commonly found it expedient to take over these existing sacred sites for churches. It is sometimes suggested that these were planted as a symbol of long life or trees of death. An explanation that the yews were planted to discourage farmers and drovers from letting their animals wander into the burial grounds, with the poisonous foliage being the disincentive, may be intentionally prosaic.
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Seed - can be very slow to germinate, often taking 2 or more years[78, 80]. It is best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn when it should germinate 18 months later. Stored seed may take 2 years or more to germinate. 4 months warm followed by 4 months cold stratification may help reduce the germination time[113]. Harvesting the seed 'green' (when fully developed but before it has dried on the plant) and then sowing it immediately has not been found to reduce the germination time because the inhibiting factors develop too early[80]. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots once they are large enough to handle and grow them on in pots in a cold frame. The seedlings are very slow-growing and will probably require at least 2 years of pot cultivation before being large enough to plant out. Any planting out is best done in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts[K]. Cuttings of half-ripe terminal shoots, 5 - 8cm long, July/August in a shaded frame. Should root by late September but leave them in the frame over winter and plant out in late spring[78]. High percentage[11]. Cuttings of ripe terminal shoots, taken in winter after a hard frost, in a shaded frame[113].
  
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Yew is also associated with [[Wales]] and [[England]] because of the [[longbow]], an early weapon of war developed in northern Europe, and as the [[English longbow]] the basis for a mediaeval tactical system. Yew is the wood of choice for longbow making; the bows are constructed so that the [[Wood#Heartwood and sapwood|heartwood]] of yew is on the inside of the bow while the [[Wood#Heartwood and sapwood|sapwood]] is on the outside. This takes advantage of the natural properties of yew wood since the heartwood is able to withstand [[physical compression|compression]] while the sapwood is [[elastic]] and allows the bow to stretch. Both tend to return to their original straightness when the arrow is released. Much yew is knotty and twisted, so unsuitable for bowmaking; most trunks do not give good staves and even in a good trunk much wood has to be discarded.
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===Pests and diseases===
  
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The trade of yew wood to England for longbows was such that it depleted the stocks of good-quality, mature yew over a huge area. The first documented import of yew bowstaves to England was in [[1294]]. In [[1350]] there was a serious shortage, and [[Henry IV of England]] ordered his royal bowyer to enter private land and cut yew and other woods. In [[1470]] compulsory [[archery]] practice was renewed, and hazel, ash, and laburnum were specifically allowed for practice bows. Supplies still proved insufficient, until by the [[Statute  of Westminster]] in 1472, every ship coming to an English port had to bring four bowstaves for every tun. [[Richard III of England]] increased this to ten for every tun. This stimulated a vast network of extraction and supply, which formed part of royal monopolies in southern Germany and Austria. In 1483, the price of bowstaves rose from two to eight [[pound sterling|pounds]] per hundred, and in 1510 the [[Venice|Venetians]] would only sell a hundred for sixteen pounds. In 1507 the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] asked the [[Rulers of Bavaria|Duke of Bavaria]] to stop cutting yew, but the trade was profitable, and in 1532 the royal monopoly was granted for the usual quantity "if there are that many". In 1562, the Bavarian government sent a long plea to the Holy Roman Emperor asking him to stop the cutting of yew, and outlining the damage done to the forests by its selective extraction, which broke the canopy and allowed wind to destroy neighbouring trees. In 1568, despite a request from Saxony, no royal monopoly was granted because there was no yew to cut, and the next year Bavaria and [[Austria]] similarly failed to produce enough yew to justify a royal monopoly. Forestry records in this area in the 1600s do not mention yew, and it seems that no mature trees were to be had. The English tried to obtain supplies from the Baltic, but at this period bows were being replaced by [[Gunpowder warfare|guns]] in any case.<ref>''Yew: A History''. Hageneder F. Sutton Publishing, 2007. ISBN 978-0750945974.</ref>.
 
  
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[[Image:English Yew close 250.jpg|right|thumb|Foliage of Irish Yew; note the leaves spreading all round the erect shoots]]
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==Varieties==
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Yews are widely used in landscaping and ornamental [[horticulture]]. Well over 200 [[cultivar]]s of ''Taxus baccata'' have been named. The most popular of these are the "Irish Yew" (''Taxus baccata'' 'Fastigiata'), a fastigiate cultivar of the European Yew selected from two trees found growing in Ireland, and the several cultivars with yellow leaves, collectively known as "Golden Yew".  A special use of the yew is for [[topiary]] garden sculpture, a use not uncommon for many of the more elaborate gardens of [[England]] and [[Scotland]].<ref name=afm2/><ref name=dj/>
 
  
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The precursors of [[chemotherapy]] drug [[Paclitaxel]] can be derived from the leaves of European Yew, which is a more renewable source than the bark of the endangered Pacific Yew (''[[Taxus brevifolia]]''). This ended a point of conflict in the early 1990s; many environmentalists, including Al Gore, had opposed the harvesting of paclitaxel for cancer treatments. [[Docetaxel]] (another [[taxane]]) can then be obtained by semi-synthetic conversion from the precursors.
 
  
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==Literary References==
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==Gallery==
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*In [[Shakesphere]]'s [[Titus Andronicus]], Act 2 Scene 3, Tamora the Goth queen exclaims: "No sooner had they told this hellish tale\ But straight they told me they would bind me here\ Unto the body of a dismal yew"
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<gallery perrow=5>
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*In the Irish myth "The Love of Chu Chulainn and Fand", the warrior and the goddess meet beneath a yew tree's head at every quarter moon.
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Image:English Yew close 250.jpg|Foliage of Irish Yew; note the leaves spreading all round the erect shoots
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*[[John Keats]] refers to the yew in his "Ode on Melancholy", writing, "Make not your rosary of yew-berries, / Nor let the beetle, nor the death moth be / Your mournful Psyche, nor the downy owl / A partner in your sorrow's mysteries..." (lines 5-8).
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Image:English Yew 600.jpg|An Irish Yew (''Taxus baccata'' 'Fastigiata')
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*In Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "In Memoriam: A.H.H." the yew above Arthur Hallam's grave is addressed: "Old yew, which graspest at the stones/ That name the underlying dead,/ Thy fibres net the dreamless head,/ Thy roots are wrapped about the bones" (II, ln. 1-4).
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Image:Upload.png| photo 3
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*A Yew tree is featured prominently in [[William Wordsworth]]'s poems "Lines Left Upon a Seat in a Yew Tree" and "Yew-trees".
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</gallery>
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*In [[Alexandre Dumas, père|Alexandre Dumas]]'s novel, [[The Count of Monte Cristo]], [[Edmond Dantès]] is imprisoned in the [[Château d'If]], which literally translates to "Castle of the Yew" ([[If (island)|If]] is a small island in France, and the name may or may not derive from the word which means ''yew'').
 
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*George Bernard Shaw's ''Mrs. Warren's Profession'' uses a yew tree in the yard of Reverend Samuel Gardner.
 
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*In Section V of Little Gidding from T.S. Eliot's Four Quartets (the last section of the poem), Eliot claims: "The moment of the rose and the moment of the yew-tree/ Are of equal duration". In his poem, "Ash-Wednesday", he mentions the yew five times: "The silent sister veiled in white and blue/ Between the yews, behind the garden god, / Whose flute is breathless, bent her head and signed but/ spoke no word" (IV); "Till the wind shake a thousand whispers from the yew" (IV); "Will the veiled sister between the slender/ Yew trees pray for those who offend her" (V); "But when the voices shaken from the yew-tree drift away/ Let the other yew be shaken and reply" (VI).
 
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*In [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', [[Beleg Strongbow]] uses a bow made of yew. In ''[[The Hobbit]]'', the eagle king complains of the men of Wilderland using bows made of yew to shoot at his people.
 
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*The murderer in [[Agatha Christie]]'s mystery ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]'' uses taxine ([[taxol]]), a poison derived from yew, to kill the victim. The victim lives at Yewtree Lodge.
 
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*In [[Ursula LeGuin]]'s [[Earthsea]] series, both the wizard Ged and the Master Summoner carry staves of yew.
 
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*In [[J. K. Rowling]]'s [[Harry Potter]] series, [[Voldemort]] uses a wand made of yew.
 
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*The Yew is the subject of Swedish author [[Gunnar D Hansson]]'s "lyrical monography" ''[[Idegransöarna]]'' (''The Yew-tree Islands'', 1994, untranslated to English). Hansson explores the yew in its uses (medicinal, lyrical, in place-names, etc) and its historical meaning. He speculates about the yew, and weaves a tale of prose poems, essays and lyrics, about the yew; the book takes the reader close to the yew in its relation to Hittites, Vikings, medicine, Robin Hood, Christmas, heathendom, etymology and mythology.
 
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*The [[Great Chain of Being]], which proposes a strict, hierarchical order for the beings (divine entities, animals, and plants) in the universe, designates the yew as the lowest form of tree among plants.
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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{{Commons|Taxus baccata}}
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<references/>
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{{Reflist}}
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*[http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Taxus+baccata Plants for a Future] - creative commons text incorporated
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* Chetan, A.  and Brueton, D. (1994) ''The Sacred Yew'', London: Arkana, ISBN 0-14-019476-2
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<!--- xxxxx  *Flora: The Gardener's Bible, by Sean Hogan. Global Book Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0881925381  -->
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* Conifer Specialist Group (1998) ''Taxus baccata'', In: IUCN 2006/UCN Red List of Threatened Species, [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/42546/summ WWW page] (Accessed 3 February 2007)
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<!--- xxxxx  *American Horticultural Society: A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants, by Christopher Brickell, Judith D. Zuk. 1996. ISBN 0789419432  -->
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* Hartzell, H. (1991) ''The yew tree: a thousand whispers: biography of a species'', Eugene: Hulogosi, ISBN 0-938493-14-0
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<!--- xxxxx  *Sunset National Garden Book. Sunset Books, Inc., 1997. ISBN 0376038608  -->
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* Simón, F. M. (2005) Religion and Religious Practices of the Ancient Celts of the Iberian Peninsula, ''[http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_6/marco_simon_6_6.html e-Keltoi]'',   v. 6, p. 287-345,  ISSN 1540-4889 online
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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* [http://www.druidnetwork.org/articles/theyew.html Notes on the Yew] Druid Network
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Latest revision as of 21:08, 19 May 2010


Taxus baccata (European Yew)


Plant Characteristics
Habit   tree

Height: ⇕ 50 ft"ft" can not be assigned to a declared number type with value 50.
Width: ⇔ 25 ft"ft" can not be assigned to a declared number type with value 25.
Poisonous: ☠ parts are toxic
Cultivation
Exposure: ☼ sun
Features: ✓ evergreen, edible, fruit
USDA Zones: 5 to 10
Scientific Names

Taxaceae >

Taxus >

baccata >

L. >


Taxus baccata is a conifer native to western, central and southern Europe, northwest Africa, northern Iran and southwest Asia.[1] It is the tree originally known as yew, though with other related trees becoming known, it may be now known as the common yew, or European yew.

Description

It is a small- to medium-sized evergreen tree, growing 10 - 20 m (exceptionally up to 28 m ) tall, with a trunk up to 2 m (exceptionally 4 m ) diameter. The bark is thin, scaly brown, coming off in small flakes aligned with the stem. The leaves are lanceolate, flat, dark green, 1 - 4 cm long and 2 - 3 mm broad, arranged spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows either side of the stem, except on erect leading shoots where the spiral arrangement is more obvious. The leaves are highly poisonous.[1][2]

The seed cones are highly modified, each cone containing a single seed 4 - 7 mm long partly surrounded by a modified scale which develops into a soft, bright red berry-like structure called an aril, 8 - 15 mm long and wide and open at the end. The arils are mature 6–9 months after pollination, and with the seed contained are eaten by thrushes, waxwings and other birds, which disperse the hard seeds undamaged in their droppings; maturation of the arils is spread over 2–3 months, increasing the chances of successful seed dispersal. The seeds themselves are extremely poisonous and bitter, but are opened and eaten by some bird species including Hawfinches[3] and Great Tits.[4] The aril is not poisonous, and is gelatinous and very sweet tasting. The male cones are globose, 3 - 6 mm diameter, and shed their pollen in early spring. It is mostly dioecious, but occasional individuals can be variably monoecious, or change sex with time.[1][2][5]

It is relatively slow growing, but can be very long-lived, with the maximum recorded trunk diameter of 4 metres probably only being reached in about 2,000 years. The potential age of yews is impossible to determine accurately and is subject to much dispute. There is rarely any wood as old as the entire tree, while the boughs themselves often hollow with age, making ring counts impossible. There are confirmed claims as high as 5,000-9,500 years,[6] but other evidence based on growth rates and archaeological work of surrounding structures suggests the oldest trees (such as the Fortingall Yew in Perthshire, Scotland) are more likely to be in the range of 2,000 years.[7][8] Even with this lower estimate, Taxus baccata is the longest living plant in Europe.


Read about Taxus baccata in the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture 

Taxus baccata, Linn. Tree, attaining 60 ft., with a usually short trunk, occasionally 8 ft. or more in diam.: bark reddish, flaky, deeply fissured in old trees: branches spreading, forming a broad, low head; branchlets somewhat pendulous: lvs. 2-ranked, linear and usually falcate, shortly acuminate, with prominent midrib, dark green above, pale beneath, 3/4 – 1 1/4 in. long or shorter in some varieties: fr. 1/3 – 1/2 in. across, with almost globose disk, about a third longer than the broadly ellipsoid brown seed 1/4 in. long. Eu. and N. Afr. to Himalayas.—Many garden forms have originated in cult.; the following are the most important: Var. adpressa, Carr. (T. parvifolia, Wender. T. brevifolia, Hort., not Nutt. T. tardiva, Laws. T. baccata tardiva, Pilger). Shrub or low tree of irregular habit, with long spreading branches: lvs. oblong, obtusish, mucronulate, 1/3 – 1/2 in. long: disk of fr. shorter than the seed. Very distinct form. Var. adpressa erecta, Nichols. (var. adpressa stricta, Beissn.), has the foliage of the preceding, but erect branches forming a columnar bush. Var. aurea, Carr. (var. elvastonensis aurea, Beissn.). Lvs. golden yellow, more brightly colored at the tips and margin. This form has proved hardier than the type in New England. Var. argentea, Loud. (var. elegantissima, Hort.). Lvs. striped straw-yellow or sometimes whitish. Var. Dovastonii, Loud. Branches wide-spreading, nodding at the tips: lvs. dull green, short and abruptly mucronulate. G. 3:89. A very handsome form. Var. Dovastonii aureo-variegata, Beissn., is a form with the lvs. variegated with yellow. Var. erecta, Loud. (var. stricta, Hort.). Bushy form, with slender, upright branches and branchlets: lvs. narrower and smaller than in the type. Var. ericoides, Carr. (var. microphylla, Hort.). Dwarf form, with slender branches and small and very narrow, pointed leaves. Var. fastigiata, Loud. (T. hibernica, Hort.). Strictly fastigiate form, with stout crowded upright branches and branchlets: lvs. spirally arranged around the branches, dark glossy green. One of the most desirable evergreens of columnar habit for formal gardens. Var. fastigiata variegata, Carr. Less vigorous and more tender: lvs. marked yellowish white. Var. fastigiata aurea, Standish. Young growth golden yellow. Var. Fisheri, Hort. Some of the lvs. deep yellow, others green. Var. glauca, Carr. Vigorous form, with longer and narrower lvs. dark green above and with a glaucous bluish tint beneath. Var. Jacksonii, Gord. (var. pendula, Hort.). Branches spreading, pendulous at the tips, with more or less incurved lvs. Var. luteo-baccata, Pilger (var. fructu luteo, Loud.). With yellow fr. Var. procumbens, Loud. Prostrate shrub, with elongated and much ramified branches. Var. repandens, Hort. A low form with long wide-spreading branches and dull bluish green lvs. Var. Washingtonii, Beissn. Vigorous form, with longer lvs., partly colored golden yellow.


The above text is from the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. It may be out of date, but still contains valuable and interesting information which can be incorporated into the remainder of the article. Click on "Collapse" in the header to hide this text.


Cultivation

An evergreen Tree growing to 15m by 10m at a slow rate.

It is hardy to zone 6 and is frost tender. It is in leaf all year, in flower from March to April, and the seeds ripen from September to November. The flowers are dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is required) and are pollinated by Wind. The plant is not self-fertile. It is noted for attracting wildlife.

The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very acid and very alkaline soils. It can grow in full shade (deep woodland) semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can tolerates strong winds but not maritime exposure. It can tolerate atmospheric pollution.

A very easy plant to grow, it is extremely tolerant of cold and heat, sunny and shady positions, wet and dry soils, exposure and any pH[200]. Thrives in almost any soil, acid or alkaline, as long as it is well-drained[1, 11, 200]. Grows well in heavy clay soils. Sensitive to soil compaction by roads etc[186, 200]. Very shade tolerant[17, 81]. Tolerates urban pollution[200]. In general they are very tolerant of exposure, though plants are damaged by severe maritime exposure[K]. A very cold hardy plant when dormant, tolerating temperatures down to about -25°c[200]. The fresh young shoots in spring, however, can be damaged by frosts[186, K]. Plants are dioecious, though they sometimes change sex and monoecious trees are sometimes found[81, 186]. Male and female trees must be grown if fruit and seed is required[K]. The fruit is produced mainly on the undersides of one-year old branches[200]. A very long lived tree[1, 7, 11, 185], one report suggests that a tree in Perthshire is 1500 years old, making it the oldest plant in Britain. Another report says that trees can be up to 4000 years old[11]. It is, however, slow growing and usually takes about 20 years to reach a height of 4.5 metres[186]. Young plants occasionally grow 30cm in a year but this soon tails off and virtually no height increase is made after 100 years[185]. A very ornamental tree, there are many named varieties[200]. Very resistant to honey fungus[8, 88, 200], but susceptible to phytopthera root rot[81, 88]. The bark is very soft and branches or even the whole tree can be killed if the bark is removed by constant friction such as by children climbing the tree[186]. Plants produce very little fibrous root and should be planted in their final positions when still small[200]. The fruit is greatly relished by thrushes[186].

Propagation

Seed - can be very slow to germinate, often taking 2 or more years[78, 80]. It is best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn when it should germinate 18 months later. Stored seed may take 2 years or more to germinate. 4 months warm followed by 4 months cold stratification may help reduce the germination time[113]. Harvesting the seed 'green' (when fully developed but before it has dried on the plant) and then sowing it immediately has not been found to reduce the germination time because the inhibiting factors develop too early[80]. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots once they are large enough to handle and grow them on in pots in a cold frame. The seedlings are very slow-growing and will probably require at least 2 years of pot cultivation before being large enough to plant out. Any planting out is best done in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts[K]. Cuttings of half-ripe terminal shoots, 5 - 8cm long, July/August in a shaded frame. Should root by late September but leave them in the frame over winter and plant out in late spring[78]. High percentage[11]. Cuttings of ripe terminal shoots, taken in winter after a hard frost, in a shaded frame[113].

Pests and diseases

Varieties

Gallery

  • Foliage of Irish Yew; note the leaves spreading all round the erect shoots

  • An Irish Yew (Taxus baccata 'Fastigiata')

  • photo 3

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Rushforth, K. (1999). Trees of Britain and Europe. Collins ISBN 0-00-220013-9.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Mitchell, A. F. (1972). Conifers in the British Isles. Forestry Commission Booklet 33.
  3. ↑ http://wbrc.org.uk/WorcRecd/Issue%2020/hawfinch1.htm
  4. ↑ http://www.bto.org/gbw/PDFs/FocusOn/Focus_GRETI.pdf
  5. ↑ Dallimore, W., & Jackson, A. B. (1966). A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae 4th ed. Arnold.
  6. ↑ Lewington, A., & Parker, E. (1999). Ancient Trees: Trees that Live for a Thousand Years. London: Collins & Brown Ltd. ISBN 1-85585-704-9
  7. ↑ Harte, J. (1996). How old is that old yew? At the Edge 4: 1-9. Available online.
  8. ↑ Kinmonth, F. (2006). Ageing the yew - no core, no curve? International Dendrology Society Yearbook 2005: 41-46.

External links


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