Grape

? Grape
Wine Grapes
Plant Info
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Vitales Family: Vitaceae Genus: Vitis L.
Species
Vitis acerifolia Vitis aestivalis Vitis amurensis Vitis arizonica Vitis x bourquina Vitis californica Vitis x champinii Vitis cinerea Vitis x doaniana Vitis girdiana Vitis labrusca Vitis x labruscana Vitis lincecumii Vitis monticola Vitis mustangensis Vitis x novae-angliae Vitis palmata Vitis riparia Vitis rotundifolia Vitis rupestris Vitis shuttleworthii Vitis tiliifolia Vitis vinifera Vitis vulpina

Grape. Plants of the genus Vitis, and the berries thereof, abundantly grown for fruit.

The grape is one of the oldest of domesticated fruits. It is probable that wine was made from it before the plant was brought into cultivation. It seems to have been cultivated at the dawn of history. Its product was apparently no rarity in Noah's time.

The grape of history is the Old World Vitis vinifera, the "wine-bearing Vitis," probably native to Asia. The paramount use of the grape always has been the production of wine. A secondary value is the production of raisins; and another is fruit for the dessert and for culinary uses. Great efforts were made to introduce the cultivation of the European grape into the American colonies, but they resulted in failure. It was not until the latter part of the last century that the chief causes of this failure became known: the depredations of the phylloxera and mildew,—and even then the causes were discovered largely because these American parasites had made incursions into the vineyards of Europe. In the meantime, one or two of the native species of Vitis had been ameliorated, and American viticulture had become established on a unique and indigenous basis, and the fruits are grown to eat rather than to drink. So fully did these early American ventures follow European customs that the grapes were usually planted on terraced slopes, as they are on the Rhine and about the continental lakes. Those early experiments finally failed because of the black-rot.

North America is richest in species of Vitis (see the article Vitis). These species range from ocean to ocean and from the British possessions to the tropics. The species that has been most improved is Vitis Labrusca of the Atlantic slope, although it seems to possess less native merit than some of the southwestern species

types. Of this species are the Concord and Catawba types (Fig. 1705). To some extent it has been hybridized with Vitis vinifera (as in Agawam, Lindley, Barry, and others of E. S. Rogers' varieties), and with native species. Already a number of the popular varieties represent such wide departures that they cannot be referred positively to any species. Of these, Delaware and Isabella are examples. The second most important species, in point of amelioration, is Vitis aestivalis, from which several of the best wine grapes have sprung (Fig. 1706). The post-oak grape (Vitis lincecumii, or V. aestivalis Var. lincecumii) of the Southwest, is one of the most promising species, and already has given excellent results in hybridization. See Fig. 1707. The Muscadine (V. rotundifolia) of the South has given the Scuppernong and a few less known forms. (Fig. 1708.) Beyond these species, there are none which has given varieties of great commercial importance, although considerable has been done in improving them. Some of the best of the wild species are practically untouched; there is only a comparatively small area of our great country which has yet developed large interests in grape-growing: the grape-types of a century hence, therefore, may be expected to be very unlike the present- day varieties. For an extended sketch of American grape history, see Bailey, "Evolution of Our Native Fruits" (1898). The American grape literature is voluminous. More than fifty authors have written on the subject. Yet there is very little of this writing which catches the actual spirit of American" grape- growing; this fact, together with the technicality and diversity of the subject itself, makes it seem wise to devote considerable space to the grape in this Cyclopedia.

While the native grape was being ameliorated in the East, the Old World Vitis vinifera was becoming established on the Pacific slope. In fact, Vitis vinifera has there run wild. The phylloxera and mildew are not native there, and the climate better suits the species. The Pacific coast viticulture, therefore, is of the Old World kind.

We now know that the phylloxera or root-louse can be evaded when the vinifera grape is grafted on native or resistant stocks, and the mildew can be combated by fungicides. Of late years, therefore, new efforts have been made to grow the wine grape in the eastern states, and in the southern latitudes some of these experiments promised well for a time. However, so great attention is required to produce a satisfactory product as to discourage the growing of vinifera varieties in the open in the East. Vinifera types will always be special grapes in the East, adapted only to particular conditions, for it is not to be expected that they can compete with the more easily grown and cosmopolitan varieties of the native species. Under glass, however, the vinifera varieties thrive; and a special discussion is given herewith (page 1388) to this branch of the subject.

The greatest development of the native grape industry has taken place in Ontario, New York, and Ohio, bordering lakes and large streams. These areas arc the lower Hudson River Valley; the region of the central- western New York lakes; the Lake Erie region of New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio; the so-called peninsular region of Ontario lying between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. There are also important grape interests in Michigan, and other northern parts. There is considerable interest in grape-culture in the cooler parts of Georgia and Alabama, and there are enlarging areas in the country extending from the Ozark region southward. Nearly all the country, excepting the northernmost parts, raises grapes, but in most cases the growing of them cannot be said to be extensive enough to be called an industry. Although the grape sections of the North follow the water areas where the land is often steep, all grape-growers prefer nearly level land. The Old World plan- tations are largely on very steep lands; such lands, by virtue of their warmth and drainage, are thought to give an extra quality of wine. These ideas were brought to this country, and many of our early vineyards were planted on terraced slopes. But we grow grapes for a different purpose from the Europeans, and land is cheap and labor is dear. Old world methods cannot be followed in the American commercial plantations.

The cosmopolitan American grape, of the native type, is the Concord, which originated with Ephraim W. Bull, of Concord, Massachusetts (Fig. 1709.) Other varieties of leading prominence in the North are Catawba, Delaware, Niagara, Worden.

The ideal bunch of grapes is of medium size for the variety, compact, uniformly developed and ripened throughout, containing no small or diseased berries, and with the bloom intact. A very dense or crowded cluster is not the most desirable, for all the berries cannot develop fully, and the cluster is not easily handled when the fruit is eaten. Fig. 1710 shows a cluster of good shape and compactness: Fig. 1711 is too broad and irregular; Figs. 1712, 1713, are rather too dense and compact.

The American grape is essentially a dessert fruit. It is eaten from the hand. There are several manufactured products, but, with the exception of wine, they have been of minor importance until recent years, although there are many large wine-cellars in New York and Ohio, and the product is of excellent quality. Unfermented grape juice is now manufactured in great quantities and has become an important article of commerce (see Cyclo. Amcr. Agric. Vol. II, p. 178). The lack of secondary domestic uses of the grape has been one reason for the very serious gluts in the markets. However, one year with another, the profit on a good vineyard may be expected to exceed that on the staple farm crops.

Pruning and training.

A grape-vine is pruned in order to reduce the amount of wood (that is, to thin or to limit the amount of fruit), and to keep the plant within manageable shape and bounds. A vine is trained in order to keep it off the ground, out of the way of the workmen, and so to arrange the fruit that it will be well exposed to light and air. In order to understand the pruning of grapes, the operator must fully grasp this principle: Fruit is borne, on wood of the present season, which arises from wood of the previous season. To illustrate: A growing shoot, or cane of 1914, makes buds. In 1915 a shoot arises from each bud; and near the base of this shoot the grapes are borne (one to four clusters on each). This is shown in Fig. 1714. The 1914 shoot is shown at the top. The 1915 shoot bears four clusters of grapes.

While every bud on the 1914 shoot may produce shoots or canes in 1915, only the strongest of these new shoots will bear fruit. The skilled grape-grower can tell by the looks of his cane (as he prunes it, in winter) which buds will give rise to the grape-producing wood the following season. The larger and stronger buds usually give best results; but if the cane itself is very big and stout, or if it is very weak and slender, he does not expect good results from any of its buds. A hard well-ripened cane the diameter of a man's little finger is the ideal size.

The second principle to be mastered is this: A vine should bear only a limited number of clusters,—say from thirty to eighty. A shoot bears clusters near its base: beyond these clusters the shoot grows into a long, leafy cane. An average of two clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. If the vine is strong enough to bear sixty clusters, thirty good buds must be left at the annual pruning. How much a vine should be allowed to bear will depend on the variety, distance apart of the vines, strength of the soil, age of the vine, system of pruning, and the ideals of the grower. The Concord is one of the strongest and most productive of grapes. Twelve to fifteen pounds is a fair crop for a mature vine; twenty pounds is a heavy crop; twenty-five pounds is a very heavy crop. An average cluster of Concord will weigh one-fourth to one-third of a pound. The vine may be expected to carry from thirty to sixty clusters; and the annual pruning will leave from fifteen to thirty buds.

Since the bearing wood springs from new canes, it follows that the fruit of the grape is each year borne farther from the main trunk of the vine. Observe that the fruit of wild vines is borne beyond reach when they climb over thickets and trees. It is a prime object of the grape-grower to obviate this difficulty. The third principle in the pruning of grape-vines is this: The bearing wood should be kept near the original trunk or head of the vine. When one cane is sending out fruit- bearing shoots, another shoot is taken out from near the main trunk or head to furnish fruit-bearing shoots for the next year; and the other or older cane is entirely cut away after the fruit is off. That is, the wood is constantly renewed; and the new shoots which are to give bearing wood the following year are called renewals. Some systems of grape-training renew back to the root every year or two, and these have been called renewal systems; but every system of grape-pruning must practise renewal in one way or another.

An old system of renewal was by means of spurs. Fig. 1715 illustrates this. The horizontal part is a permanent arm or branch. We will suppose that it grew in 1912. In 1913 a shoot grew upward. It bore two or three clusters of fruit. In autumn it was cut back to a, two buds being left to supply the shoots of the succeeding year. This short branch is now called a spur. Only one shoot was wanted for the next, year, but two buds were left in case one should be injured. In 1914, a branch grew from one of these buds: it bore fruit: in the fall it was cut back to b. In 1915 a shoot will grow from one of the buds, c. Thus the spur elongates year by year, becoming a forking, complicated, stubby branch. After a few years it may become weak: the grower sees this, and if a new shoot should start from the main arm near the base of the spur, he encourages it and cuts off all of the old spur: thus he renews back again to the main vine. Shoots from adventitious or secondary buds are likely to spring from the main arm or the spur at any time. These are usually weak and are removed, but now and then a strong one arises. Spur-pruning is now rarely used except in grapes grown on arbors or under glass, in which cases it is necessary to have a long, permanent trunk. On arbors it is best to carry one arm or trunk from each root to the top of framework. Each year the lateral canes are cut back to spurs of two or three buds. The pruning of glasshouse grapes is discussed under Grapes under glass (page 1389).

The current systems of pruning renew to a head—or to the main trunk—each year. The trunk is carried up to the desired height—to one of the wires of the trellis—and one or more canes are taken out from its top each year. The object is to keep the bearing wood near the main trunk and to obviate the use of spurs. This type of pruning is illustrated in Fig. 1716. This engraving shows the head of a vine seven years old, and on which two canes are allowed to remain after each annual pruning. The part extending from b to f and d is the base of the bearing cane of 1914. In the winter of 1914-15, this cane is cut off at d, and the new cane, e, is left to make the bearing wood of 1915. Another cane arose from /, but it was too weak to leave for fruiting. It was, therefore, cut away. The old stub, b, f, d, will be cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1915-16. In the mean- tune, a renewal cane will have grown from the stub c, which is left for that purpose, and the old cane, b d, will be cut off just beyond it, between c and /. In this way, the bearing wood is kept close to the head of the vine. The wound a shows where an old stub was cut away this winter, 1914-15, while b shows where one was cut off the previous winter. A scar on the back of the head, which does not show in the illustration, marks the spot where a stub was cut away two years ago, in the winter of 1912-13. This method of pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely, and if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short, the head will not enlarge out of proportion to the growth of the stock or trunk.

Two common styles of training are in use in the

northern states, but each of them practises essentially the system of renewals described in the last paragraph. One stvlc of training carries the trunk only to the lowest wire of the trellis. The canes—usually two in number— are tied horizontally on the bottom wire, and the bearing shoots are tied, as they grow, to the two wires above (Fig. 1717). This is an upright system. The other style carries the trunk to the top wire. The canes are tied on the top wire, and the bearing shoots hang. This is the drooping or Kniffin system. If the shoots run out on the top wire by clinging to it by tendrils, they are torn loose, so that they will hang: this is a very necessary practice. There is controversy as to the comparative merits of these systems, which proves that each has merit. It is probable that the upright system is better for the slender or shorter varieties, as Delaware, and also for those whose shoots stand erect, as Catawba. The Kniffin has distinct merit for strong- growing varieties, as Concord; it is also cheaper, since it requires no summer tying. This system is well illustrated (as given by E. W. Williams in "Garden and Forest," I: 461) in Figs. 1718-1720.

One- or two-year-old vines are planted either in the fall or early spring. At planting, the vine is cut back to three or four buds, and the roots are shortened (Fig. 1724). If all buds start, the strongest one or two may be allowed to grow. The canes arising from this bud should be staked and allowed to grow through the season; or in large plantations the first-year canes may be allowed to lie on the ground. The second year this cane should be cut back to the same number of eyes as the first year. After growth begins in the second spring, one of the strongest shoots should be allowed to remain. This cane may be grown to a single stake through the second summer. At the end of the second year the cane may be cut back to the bottom wire of the trellis, if upright training is to be employed. The cane may be strong enough at this time to be made the permanent trunk of the Kniffin training, but in most cases the trunk is not carried to the top wire until the third year. The main pruning is performed when the vine is dormant. The ideal time is January and February in the North, although the work is often begun in November if the area is large. Pruning in spring causes the vine to bleed, but bleeding is not injurious. But late pruning interferes with tillage, and the buds are likely to be injured after they are swollen. Summer pruning is now practised only to the extent of pulling out suckers and weak shoots and even this is not always done. Heading-in the vine in summer is likely to start side growths, which are useless and troublesome.

Propagation.

The grape grows readily from seeds, which may be kept over winter and germinated in the house early in the spring. They may even be planted in beds in the open, but the proportion of failures will be greater. Seeds produce new varieties, and they are used only in an experimental way.

The commercial propagation of grapes is accomplished by means of hardwood cuttings. These cuttings are taken in the winter from the trimmings of vineyards. In all ordinary cases they are made of two or three buds' length, preferably three (Fig. 1721). They are cut as soon as the canes are trimmed, tied in small bundles, and these bundles are then buried half their depth in damp sand in a cool cellar. By spring the cuttings will be more or less callused. The cuttings are planted in the open on the approach of warm weather. A loose loamy soil is chosen, and it is well and deeply prepared. The cuttings arc inserted until only the upper bud stands at the surface of the ground. These cuttings are placed 6 to 8 inches apart in rows, and the rows are far enough apart to allow of horse cultivation. These cuttings may give plants large enough for sale the following autumn; but it is usually preferred to let the plants grow two years before they are put upon the market. In such cases it is customary in many of the best nurseries, to transplant at the end of the first season. When wood is scarce, the canes are sometimes cut to single eyes. In this case about an inch of wood is left on either side of the bud. Single-eye cuttings are nearly always started under glass, preferably on the greenhouse bench. If they are started in February, they will be large enough for transplanting in a well-prepared seed-bed very early in the spring. Greenwood cuttings are sometimes used in the summer with new and rare varieties, but they are not in general favor. In California, rooted vines of one year are preferred; and in soil in which cuttings root readily, they are sometimes planted directly in the vineyard.

The grape is easily grafted. Because of the flexible nature of the vine, however, it is customary to make the graft below the surface of the ground. An ordinary cleft-graft is usually employed. The whole vine is cut off 4 or 5 inches below the surface, and the graft is inserted in the same fashion as in apple or pear trees. The surface may then be waxed or covered with clay or other material, to keep the water out of the cleft, although if the earth is firmly packed around the graft and no water stands, the union may be perfectly satisfactory without any cover. (Figs. 1722, 1723.) Vines of any age may be grafted. It is important that the cions be perfectly dormant. These cions are taken and stored in the same way as cuttings. The grafting should be done very early in the spring, before the sap starts. Grafting may also be performed late in the spring, after all danger of bleeding is over; but, in that case, it is more difficult to keep the cions dormant, and the growth is not likely to be so great the first season. Vineyards composed of unprofitable varieties may be changed to new varieties very readily by this means. Vinifera varieties can also be grafted on our common phylloxera-resistant stocks by the same method. Almost any method of grafting can be employed upon the grape-vine if the work is done beneath the surface.

Insects and diseases.

The grape is amenable to many insect and fungous attacks. The most serious difficulty is the phylloxera, which, however, is practically unknown as an injurious pest on the native grapes. On the vinifera varieties it is exceedingly serious, and it is working great devastation in many of the vineyards of the Old World and of the Pacific coast. The most practicable means of dealing with this pest is to graft the vinifera vines on native or resistant roots.

The mildew and black-rot are the most serious of the fungoid enemies in the central and eastern parts of the continent. Both these diseases cause the berries to decay. They also attack the leaves, particularly the mildew, causing the leaves to fall and preventing the grapes from maturing. It is the mildew that has worked such havoc in European vineyards. The mildew is most serious on thin-leaved and smooth-leaved varieties, as the Delaware. It produces yellowish patches on the leaves, with frost-like colonies on the under sides. It causes the berries to decay Common with a gray and finally a brown rot, the j-bud cut- berries usually remaining small and firm but not greatly wrinkled. The black-rot causes the berries to become very hard, dry and shriveled, and the epidermis is covered with minute pimples. (Fig. 1286, Vol. II.) The treatment for both these diseases is the same—spraying with bordeaux mixture. In regions in which the diseases have not been very prevalent, it is usually sufficient to begin the spraying after the fruit has begun to set, and to spray two or three times, as the case seems to require. When the diseases have been very prevalent, however, it may be well to begin before the buds swell in the spring. In infested vineyards, the foliage and diseased berries should be raked up and burned in the fall.

The anthracnose or scab (Sphaceloma ampelinum) is a very serious fungous disease. It is most apparent on the fruit, where it makes a hard, scabby patch. Its most serious work, however, occurs on the stems of the clusters and on the young growth, where it makes sunken, discolored areas, and where it interferes seriously with the growth of the parts. It is not so easily controlled as the mildew and the black-rot. Careful attention to pruning away all the diseased wood and burning it will help in controlling the disease. Before growth starts, spray the vines, trellis and posts with sulfate of iron solution. After the leaves open, use the bordeaux mixture.

In grape-houses the powdery mildew (Uncinula spiralis) often does much damage. It also occurs in the open vineyard, but it is usually not serious there. It appears as a very thin, dust-like covering on the leaves. It sometimes attacks the berries, causing them to remain small or to crack. This fungus lives on the surface, and is therefore readily controlled in grape-houses by dusting with flowers of sulfur or by the fumes of evaporated sulfur.

The oidium is the most prevalent fungous disease in California. It is controlled by dust-sprays of sulfur (page 1387).

Many other insects and diseases prey upon the grape, but those mentioned above are widespread and may be considered as perhaps the standard parasites. (See Vol II, pp. 1031, 1053.)

Literature.

The American book literature of the grape is nearly as large as that of all the tree-fruits combined. Probably 100 books, counting the various editions, have been published in North America since Adlum's volume in 1823 (see "Evolution of Our Native Fruits," pp. 117- 126). The earlier books were founded largely on European practices. The leading current works are: "Bush- berg's Descriptive Catalogue and Grape Growers' Manual;" Mitzky's "Our Native Grape;" Fuller's "Grape Culturist;" Husmann's "American Grape Growing and Wine Making." For the Pacific slope, Husmann's "Grape Culture and Wine Making in California," Wickson's "California Fruits," and Eisen's "Raisin Industry" are useful guides. Detailed discussions of pruning and methods of training are contained in "The Pruning-Book." A standard European monograph is Foex's "Cours Complet de Viticulture." The recent standard American works are Munson's "Foundations of American Grape Culture," and Hedrick's "Grapes of New York," which are notable contributions to horticultural literature. L H.B.

Grapes in the North (Canada).

Any section in which grapes will thrive without winter protection may be said to be a commercial section. For home use they are grown far north by covering with earth or litter during the winter. When the leaves are falling or have fallen in autumn, the vines are pruned—fan system, with the old stalks very close to the ground, and laid flat upon the earth. Here they are left under their straw or earthy covering until danger of frost is past, the following spring, when the covering is removed and the canes tied to the wires. But. this is expensive and the method is not commercial. For market pur]x>ses, grapes are grown with one of two main objects in view: either for wine (sweet or fermented) or table and dessert purposes. The purpose determines the variety. Concords and varieties approaching it in type and quality are the choice for the former purpose, while for the latter the variety is determined by the season and the market demand. In the former case, also, the number of varieties is limited, while in the latter they are numerous, ranging from the earliest, Champion, to the latest, Vergennes, and intermediate varieties of all colors and grades.

Grapes, unlike peaches and cherries, are not subject to very great fluctuations in price and yield. They are comparatively steady in their returns, and. while never advertising themselves by enormous yields and profits, are ever pushing to the front in acreage, yield to the acre and importance. The acreage increase has been very rapid until now New York, the leading northern state of the United States, which thirty-five years ago had but a small acreage, today has more than 70,000 acres, and Ontario, the leading province of the Dominion, has approximately 14,000 acres. The rapid increase has not been because of high prices, but rather steady average prices from $18 to $30 a ton, delivered at the winery, or an equal price f.o.b. the shipping-station. The average yield has not been over two tons to the acre, but, under good conditions, with intelligent management, an average of four to six tons is not uncommon.

Soils and location.

Grapes are grown on all types of soils, on many sites, in various locations. But the loams and clays with good drainage, the sites with good air- circulation, and the locations that are reasonably free from frost are preferred. Quality is to a large extent determined by soil. Some of the wineries will accept only fruit that is grown on clay soils. The product is more uniform, it ripens more regularly and the sugar-content is higher. Also some cooperative companies that are catering to a special trade, advise their members to plant only on heavy soils because the grapes are sweeter and of higher quality. The ideal soil, however, is the rich, deep, alluvial, easily drained loams that have taken centuries to build up from the washing of the hillsides toward the margins of the lakes and rivers.

The site is of importance for two reasons, those of air-circulation and sunlight, both of which serve the same purpose: to assist the grower in his fight against disease. Disease can live only in conditions that favor it, and light and air are its hereditary enemies. Site is also often discussed with reference to early bud- development and late spring frosts, but its importance has been overdrawn. The number of vineyards injured annually in this manner in the commercial districts is very small.

Location (and by that is here meant the situation of a district) is of extreme importance. In the Niagara Peninsula, Ontario,—the largest grape-growing center in Canada,—the aspect is north, with a hill in the rear, and facing the waters of Lake Ontario. Here the crop naturally varies, but it never fails. The same applies to the best parts of New York State, the commercial sections of the one being but continuations of the other. The favored spots in Ontario are not on the shore of the lake but rather just below the escarpment where the water has less influence. Grapes .on the shore sometimes fail to ripen well and the quality is consequently inferior. Because of this, many vineyards on the shore have been removed in late years, while the interior plantings have largely increased. If the volume of water were smaller, the influence would be sufficient only for frost-protection; but, where it is so large, it retards early development. The water influence is striking, as the fruits (peaches, for example) ripen from six to ten days later on the shore than two to four miles inland.

Stock and pruning.

One-year-old plants are the choice for planting.

These should be well grown and healthy. Two-year- old plants are often only one-year culls. The plants are set as early in the spring as possible on land that has been previously prepared by growing a cultivated crop. Plants set in sod or on unprepared land do not thrive, and poor growth the first year is not made up two years later. The stock is heeled-in as soon as it comes from the nursery, but is left heeled-in only until the ground is ready for planting, which is as early as possible. When planting, time is saved by plowing a furrow, sometimes by throwing out two furrows, one each way. A man with a spade deepens this, or loosens the soil in the bottom, and then packs it again firmly around the roots. Before planting, all broken and damaged roots are cut away and sometimes the healthy ones are cut back. (Fig. 1724.) The tops are cut back to two to four buds. Distances of planting vary greatly, depending on the variety and the ideas of the planter. The popular distances are 7 by 1.0 feet to 8 by 10 feet for the small-growing varieties, to 9 by 11 feet for the larger-growing varieties. A few of the small-growing varieties are planted 6 by 9 feet, but this is exceptional. The first year the vines are allowed to

run as they will. (Fig. 1725.) The posting is done the second or third year. This consists of driving posts sharpened at one end or digging holes and setting them about 21 to 27 feet apart. One post is set for each three vines. The end posts are either braced the same as ordinary fence-posts or anchored. (Fig. 1726.) Various anchors are used, such as large stones buried in the ground, cement used the same as stones, or a patent anchor which consists of a V-shaped piece of iron to which is attached a wire. This is driven in the ground to a depth of 30 to 36 inches. The posts are 8 feet in length, usually cedar or chestnut, and cost from 15 to 25 cents each— an average of 20 cents. The wiring is done the second or third year, preferably the second year, and consists of stretching two No. 9 galvanized wires the entire length of the row. The first is about 30 inches from the ground and the second about 30 inches above this. Some use three wires, but two are more popular. The wires slacken easily and the posts heave some every winter. This must be corrected regularly before tying the grapes. Drive the posts to place with a ten- or twelve-pound mallet and tighten the wire by turning the patent stretcher on the anchored posts. When putting the wire on the posts and tying the vines to the wire always place them on the windward side, as they are less likely to be blown down and damaged. The vines may be secured with raffia or with wire. (Figs. 1727-1730.)

Pruning systems are many and varied, and the advocates of each system claim for their ideal special merits. Kniffin, Improved Kniffin, Fan, Arm and High Renewal systems are all used to some extent, but the Fan and Improved Kniffin are the most popular. Many growers believe that it is impossible to prune to a definite system, but by others this is not found to be the case. Many leave the necessary number of strong healthy canes and tie them up as best they can space them on the wires. From twenty-eight to forty buds is the popular number to leave, and the ideal of the grower is the only guide on which canes to leave these buds. The preference is usually given to the strong quality-looking canes on which the buds are close together.

The system of pruning to be followed should be started one year after planting. As at planting-time, cut back to three or four buds and after growth starts, break or rub off the weaker shoots. This gives the stronger ones an opportunity to thrive. Tie to the lower wire. The second season it may be advisable to cut back similarly, especially if the growth has been weak. From this point train the vines according to the system to be followed. The work of pruning is usually done in the spring, from February to April, before any growth starts. If growth has started, the vines will bleed. The brush is gathered, in most cases, with a pole about 11 or 12 feet long, 3 ½ inches in diameter at one end and tapering to about 1 ½ to 2 inches. This must be of strong material that will bend without breaking. A chain is attached from 24 inches to 36 inches from the large end, and as it is drawn by the team the brush collects between the chain and pole. Other methods are used, but this is by far the most common.

Tillage and fertilizing.

Cultivation is thorough for best results. The vines are sometimes intercropped with cultivated crops the first year after plant- ^;^; ing, but later they require all the care. The vines are plowed up in the fall and disced and grape-hoed away the following spring. Cover- crops are sometimes used, but the practice is not an extensive one because of damp conditions for harvesting in the fall. Cover- crops are sometimes not plowed under till the following spring. The tying is done by women and girls in early spring before the buds are so swollen that they are easily damaged. Many materials are used, but the most common are wire and a soft wool twine made for the purpose. The twine is most used, although the wire is very handy. The canes are spaced when tying, and thus held in place until the tendrils of the new shoots secure them to the wire.

Fertilizing is still done in a haphazard way. Some of the best men make a regular practice of mulching the roots with farmyard manure in the fall. Some apply no farmyard manure at all. The use of commercial fertilizer is still in the experimental stage. Its value is admitted but its use is not fully understood. On light and gravel soils some potash compounds are being used. On the deep alluvial soils some growers are using it in the form of wood-ashes rather than the prepared commercial product. Some bone-meal, at the rate of 300 to 600 pounds to the acre, is being used also. Some state profitable results from their methods; others think that with light applications of farmyard manure and thorough cultivation the commercial fertilizers are not required.

Harvesting and marketing.

The cutting of the fruit is done for the most part by women and girls, who are usually paid according to the amount of work they do. In some cases they are paid from $1 to $1.25 a day, but 1 cent for an eight- to ten-pound basket is more satisfactory. Cutting starts as soon as the earliest grapes are ready for ——— the market. In Canada, Champions have of late years been the first variety to reach the wholesaler. This variety colors before it is really ripe and, though having a fair appearance in the baskets, is not really ripe. Sharp criticism is leading the growers to be more Cautious and to some extent drop the variety for the more satisfactory Campbell and Moore Early. These varieties are later, but please the purchaser. For wine purposes the fruit is left on the vines as long as possible so that it becomes fully matured. Grapes, unlike apples and especially pears, do not ripen off the vines and must be left until fully mature if the highest quality is expected, especially for dessert.

Of late years large acreages have been planted especially for the markets of the Canadian West. Cooperative associations have been organized to handle all varieties extending over the season; but, in the case of one large company, one variety only, Worden, is handled. This ripens before Concord and consequently brings a high price. The location of the vineyards of this particular company is ideal; the fruit is of good quality and ripens early and it seems that under those particular conditions the Worden is the most profitable grape to grow.

The forming of cooperative associations for the purpose of marketing the fruit has the distinct advantage of improved distribution. It has also cut down the handling expenses. Very few baskets, except special orders, are sent great distances by express. The cooperative associations have enabled the growers to secure car rates, and though prices have been comparatively low even as low as 10 cents for an eight-pound basket f.o.b. shipping station, the cheap and rapid methods of handling have made the industry profitable.

A grape is the fruit that grows on the woody vines of the family Vitaceae. Grapes grow in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be black, blue, golden, green, purple, red, pink, brown, peach or white. They can be eaten raw or used for making jam, grape juice, jelly, wine and grape seed oil. Cultivation of grapevines occurs in vineyards, and is called viticulture. One who studies and practices growing grapes for wine is called a viticulturist.

Raisins are the dried fruit of the grapevine, and the name actually comes from the French word for "grape". Wild grapevines are often considered a nuisance weed, as they cover other plants with their usually rather aggressive growth.

The leaves of the grape vine itself are considered edible and are used in the production of dolmades.

Grapevines are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species - see list of Lepidoptera which feed on grapevines.

Grapevines

Many species of grapevines exist, including:

• Vitis vinifera, the European winemaking grapevine. Native to virtually all of mainland Europe.
• Vitis labrusca, the North American table and grape juice grapevines, sometimes used for wine. Native to the Eastern U.S. and Canada.
• Vitis riparia, a wild vine of North America, sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. Native to the entire Eastern U.S. and north to Quebec.
• Vitis rotundifolia, the muscadines, used for jams and wine. Native to the Southeastern U.S. from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico.
• Vitis aestivalis, the variety Norton (AKA Cynthiana) is used for winemaking
• Vitis lincecumii (also called Vitis aestivalis or Vitis lincecumii), Vitis berlandieri (also called Vitis cinerea var. helleri), Vitis cinerea, Vitis rupestris are used for making hybrid grapevines and for pest-resistant rootstocks.
• Vitis arizonica A desert grapevine found in the southwestern US that is hardy against extremes of temperature. Can be used for wines.
• Vitis californica A grapevine important to the California wine industry for its rootstock which is able to withstand pests and cooler weather. Native to California and Oregon.
• Vitis vulpina Frost grape. Native to the Midwest east to the coast up through New York.

There are many varieties of grapevines; most are cultivars of V. vinifera.

Hybrid grapes also exist, and these are primarily crosses between V. vinifera and one or more varieties of V. labrusca, V. riparia or V. aestivalis. Hybrids tend to be less susceptible to frost a nd disease (notably phylloxera), but wine from some hybrids may have a little of the characteristic "foxy" odor of labrusca.

The sea grape Coccoloba uvifera is actually a member of the Buckwheat family Polygonaceae and is native to the lands of the Caribbean Sea.

According to the "Food and Agriculture Organization" (FAO), 75,866 square kilometres of the world is dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be used as a sweetener for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.

Grapevines

The following list of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes for wine making:

• Spain 11,750 km²
• France 8,640 km²
• Italy 8,270 km²
• Turkey 8,120 km²
• United States 4,150 km²
• Iran 2,860 km²
• Romania 2,480 km²
• Portugal 2,160 km²
• Argentina 2,080 km²
• Australia 1,642 km²

Sources: FAO, Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (pdf), Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation.

Comparing diets among western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, surprisingly the incidence of heart disease remains low in France.[1] This phenomenon has been named the French Paradox. Many scientists now believe the reason is the greater consumption of red wine in France. Something in the grape helps to lower cholesterol levels in the body and thus slows the build up of deposits in the arteries. Compounds such as resveratrol (a polyphenol antioxidant) have been discovered in grapes and these have been positively linked to fighting cancer, heart disease, degenerative nerve disease and other ailments. Doctors do not recommend excessive consumption of red wine, but three or four glasses a week is beneficial and encouraged.

Red or not, grapes of all colors offer comparable benefits. Red wine offers health benefits not found in white wine, because many of the beneficial compounds are found in the skins of the grapes, and only red wine is fermented with the skins.

Raisins, currants, and sultanas

A raisin is any dried grape. A currant is a dried Zante grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). A sultana was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin, but the word is now applied to raisins made from common North American grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana.

Note that, while raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (from whence the English grape) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisin). As raisin is uncountable in French, a single grape is a grain de raisin.

Note also that currant has come to refer also to the blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries completely unrelated to grapes.

Seedlessness

Seedlessness is a highly desirable trait in table grape selection, and seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or resc ue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques. There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivars get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka. All are members of Vitis vinifera.

Resveratrol

Main article: Resveratrol

Resveratrol is produced by several plants, apparently for its antifungal properties. It is found in widely varying amounts in grapes, primarily the skins and seeds. This is particularly true for muscadine grapes, whose skin and seeds have about one hundred times the concentration as the pulp.[2] The amount found in grape skins also varies with the grape cultivar, its geographic origin, and exposure to fungal infection. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content.[3]

Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.[4] Ordinary non-muscadine red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L , depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less - the reason being that red wine is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Wines produced from muscadine grapes, however, both red and white, may contain more than 40 mg/L.. [5]

Diseases

Main article: List of grape diseases

Gallery

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  A bunch of grapes

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  Autumn Royal grapes

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  Red and green grapes

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  Red grapes

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  Flame seedless grapes

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  Foliage of the Concord grape plant

• Grapevinefoliage.jpg

  Foliage of the New England wild grape

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  Young grapes

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  Pinot Noir grapes

• Grapesontable.JPG

  More Red grapes

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  Guadalupe Valley Vineyards, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico / Viñedos del Valle de Guadalupe, Ensenada, Baja California, México

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  Guadalupe Valley Vineyards, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico / Viñedos del Valle de Guadalupe, Ensenada, Baja California, México

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  Concord grapes on the vine

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  Ripe concord grapes (near) and unripe concord grapes (far). Unripe grapes can be made into verjuice.

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  A vineyard in the Canton of Geneva.

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  A bunch of green grapes.

See also

• List of grape varieties
• Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs

External links

• Integrated Taxonomic Information System entry for Grape family
• Area under vine (pdf)
• Wild Grapes
• 300 Grape Varieties for Wine
• Wine Wiki