Pteridophyta

Plant Characteristics

Origin:	✈	?

Cultivation

Exposure:	☼	?"?" is not in the list (sun, part-sun, shade, unknown) of allowed values for the "Exposure" property.
Water:	◍	?"?" is not in the list (wet, moist, moderate, dry, less when dormant) of allowed values for the "Water" property.

Scientific Names

Read about Pteridophyta in the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture

Eggs borne in archegonia: sperm-cells in antheridia: alternation of generations clearly evident, the spore-bearing generation dominant: true vascular tissue present; also true roots. CLASS I. FILICINAE (Ferns) Sub-class I. Eusporangiatae. Sporangial wall several cells in thickness Order 1. Ophioglossales 1. Ophioglossaceae (from the genus Ophioglossum, adder's tongue, in reference to the fruiting spike). Adder's-tongue Family. Fig. 1. Plants small or of medium size, often somewhat fleshy: leaves various, entire or often much divided, not circinate in vernation; veins forking or netted; base of leaf cap-like, enclosing the succeeding leaf: sporangia scattered, borne on the margin of the much modified fertile portion of the leaf, which is usually separated from the sterile by a stalk, globular in form; the walls several cells in thickness; annulus wanting; dehiscence by a straight horizontal or vertical fissure: prothallium subterranean, tuber-like, chlorophylless, containing mycorrhizal fungi, saprophytic. Three genera and about 50 species occur, of general distribution. Several species of Botrychium and one of Ophioglossum are found in the eastern United States. The sheathing base of the leaf, the solitary, thick-walled sporangia without an annulus, and the subterranean saprophytic prothallia are important characteristics. Two genera are sometimes grown in North America: Botrychium (Moonwort Ferns, Grape Ferns) and Ophioglossum (Adder's Tongue). Order 2. Marattiales 2. Marattiaceae (from the genus Marattia, named in honor of Maratti, Italian botanist). Marattia Family. Fig. 1. Stately tropical ferns with thickened, often erect, stems: leaves usually very large, from nearly entire to several times pinnate, circinate, inclosed when young by the prominent stipules: indusium present or absent: sporangia in sori on the under face of the leaf, either separate or united into a capsule-like body (synangium); the walls several cells in thickness; annulus wanting, or greatly reduced; dehiscence by clefts, pores, or, in case of the “synangia,” first by valves and then by slits: prothallium a green heart-shaped thallus on the surface of the soil, sometimes branched. Four genera and about 23 species are found in tropical regions, but extend into the south temperate zone. The fern-like habit, the prominent stipules, the thick-walled sporangia borne in sori or synangia, the absence of a well-developed annulus, and the green thalloid emersed prothallia, are important characteristics. The family is probably very old geologically. The thick, starchy stem of Angiopteris and some Marattias are locally used for food. The fleshy stipules of Marattia fraxinea are eaten; the spicy leaves of some species are used to season food. The slime from the stipules of M. Douglasii is used medicinally by the Hawaiians. Three genera are known to American horticulture and are occasionally grown as ornamental greenhouse plants: Angiopteris, Danaea, and Marattia, representing less than a half-dozen cultivated species. Sub-class II. Leptosporangiatae. Sporangial wall one cell in thickness Order 3. Filicales 3. Hymenophyllaceae(from the genus Hymenophyllum, signifying membrane-leaved). Filmy-fern Family. Fig. 2. Very delicate ferns, small or minute in size, frequently epiphytic: leaves entire, 1-3-pinnate, or dichotomously divided, rarely thalloid or orbicular, reduced in thickness to a single layer of cells between the veins, and thus often resembling the leaves of mosses; stomates absent; ultimate or all veins dichotomous: sori marginal, raised on a slender columnar projection of the veinlet: indusium cup-shaped: sporangium thin-walled; dehiscence vertical or oblique; annulus complete, horizontal: prothallium thalloid or filamentous, often much branched. There are 2 genera and about 200 species growing upon rocks and trees in the damp, shady forests of the tropics, and in New Zealand. One species reaches central Europe and another reaches Kentucky. The family is readily distinguished by the delicate leaf, pedicelled sorus and equatorial annulus. The Hymenophyllaceae require a warm and very humid atmosphere, and, therefore, most species are difficult to cultivate. Several species of Hymenophyllum and Trichomanes are in cultivation in America. 4. Cyatheaceae (from the genus Cyathea, signifying cup + contain, in reference to the cup-shaped indusium). Cyathea Family. Fig. 2. Usually tree ferns with large, much-compounded, circinate leaves: sori globular, borne on the under side of the leaf: veins forking: indusium usually present, bi-valvular, cupular or unilateral: sporangia thin-walled, sessile or short-pedicelled, obovoid; annulus complete at the pedicel, oblique, dehiscence transverse: prothallium ordinary, green. This family has 7 genera and about 300 species, of which 115 belong to Cyathea, 112 to Alsophila, and 44 to Hemitelia. They are distributed in the tropics of both hemispheres. The Cyatheaceae is closely related to the Polypodiaceae from which it differs only in the slightly oblique annulus which passes just at one side of the insertion of the pedicel, and is therefore uninterrupted at that point. The dense, woolly covering of the stem of many species is sometimes collected for stuffing pillows. The starchy pith of some New Zealand Cyatheaceae was formerly used for food. In India, an intoxicating drink is prepared from the pith. Several species are important greenhouse ferns. Five genera at least are listed in the American trade: Alsophila, Cibotium (Scythian Lamb), Cyathea, Dicksonia, Hemitelia. 5. Polypodiaceae (from the genus Polypodium, signifying many feet, in allusion to the branched rootstock of some species). Polypody Family. Fig. 2. Ferns of very diverse habit, rarely arborescent: leaves of normal texture, entire or pinnatifid or multisect, circinate; veins forking: sori mostly on the under side of the leaf; indusium peltate, fringed, capillary, cupular, elongated, unilateral or wanting: sporangia thin-walled, long- or short-stalked; annulus vertical, interrupted by the pedicel; dehiscence transverse: prothallium thalloid, green, growing upon the surface of the soil, mostly bisexual. Polypodiaceae has more than 100 genera and about 4,000 species of wide distribution; especially abundant in humid regions and in forests. The largest genera are: Dryopteris (or Aspidium), 450 species; Polypodium, 500 sp.; Asplenium, 150-200 sp.; Elaphoglossum, 80-100 sp.; Adiantum, 80 sp.; and Pteris, Blechnum, Polystichum and Aspidium about 50-70 species each. The family is most closely related to the Cyatheaceae. The presence of sori, the thin-walled sporangium with vertical interrupted annulus and transverse dehiscence are distinctive. This comprises the larger number of ferns, and is often called the Fern Family. Some of the most striking variants are the walking-leaf fern with undivided lanceolate leaves which take root at the apex and repeat the process several times, all the plantlets remaining for a time connected; the hart's-tongue fern with broadly lanceolate-oblong, entire frond; the epiphytic staghorn fern with erect, forked, fertile fronds and orbicular entire, sterile fronds closely imbricated over the short stem and support. In many species the fertile and sterile fronds are dimorphic. The stems of some species are slender and climbing; others long, slender and creeping; some are very stout and erect (tree ferns). The ferns are of little economic importance except as ornamental plants. The starchy rootstocks of some species are eaten locally, as are also the young shoots. The rootstock of Dryopteris (Aspidium) Filix-mas is a reputed vermifuge. About 60 species are in cultivation in America. Among these are: Adiantum (Maidenhair Fern); Aspidium (Shield F.); Asplenium (Spleenwort) ; Camptosorus (Walking-leaf F.); Dennstaedtia (Dicksonia) (Fragrant F.); Onoclea (Sensitive F., Ostrich F.); Pellaea (Cliff Brake); Phegopteris (Beech F.); Platycerium (Staghorn F.); Polypodium (Polypody F.); Polystichum (Holly F., Christmas F.); Pteris (Common Brake); Scolopendrium (Hart's-tongue F.). 6. Ceratopteridaceae (Parkeriaceae) (from the genus Ceratopteris, meaning horn-fern). Ceratopteris Family. Aquatic ferns rooting in the mud: leaves of two sorts, the ones less divided with broader segments and veins more or less anastomosing; the more aerial fertile ones much divided, with narrow segments, and revolute margins which later almost completely inclose the scattered sporangia: indusium wanting: sporangia globular, thin-walled with a very diverse broad nearly complete or nearly wanting annulus; rarely the annulus wanting; dehiscence transverse: prothallia unisexual, thalloid; antheridia not superficial. Only one genus and a few species of tropical distribution are known, the only aquatic species among the true ferns. The habit, the absence of sori, the variable annulus, and the sunken antheridia are distinctive. This fern is sometimes cooked and eaten as greens. One or two species are frequently grown for aquaria and aquatic gardens. 7. Schizaeaceae (from the genus Schizaea, cleft, alluding to the leaves). Curly-grass Family. Fig. 3. Ferns of very diverse habit, some extremely small, others climbing: stem mostly oblique or horizontal: leaves very diverse, usually pinnate or palmate; veins forking: sporangia thin-walled, usually scattered, at first marginal, later sometimes exceeded by the margin of the frond, often appearing spiked or panicled, sessile; no apparent indusium; annulus transverse, apical, complete; dehiscence vertical; fertile portion of the frond usually much modified: prothallium of all genera except Schizaea ordinary; that of the latter genus filamentous and extremely branched, resembling that of the filmy ferns. In this family are 4 genera and about 70 species, mostly tropical, rare in the colder regions. Two species reach the eastern United States, one of which extends to Newfoundland. The solitary sporangia and transverse apical annulus are important characteristics. The curly grass (Schizaea pusilla) inhabits bogs, where it may form extended mats of dry, woolly "grass" 1-3 inches high. The sterile leaves are without laminae. Lygodium palmatum is the "climbing fern" of eastern America. The leaf, not the stem, of this plant has unlimited growth, and twines. Four genera are in the American trade: Anemia Lygodium, Mohria, and Schizaea. 8. Gleicheniaceae (from the genus Gleichenia, named in honor of W. F. Von Gleichen, 1717-1783). Gleichenia Family. Fig. 2. Terrestrial ferns with peculiar foliage: leaves several times forking owing to the arrested growth of the main divisions which develop in succeeding seasons, only the ultimate branches pinnate (except in one genus): indusium none: sporangia in sori on the under side of the leaf, thin-walled, sessile, pear-shaped; annulus complete, running obliquely around the back and over the top; line of dehiscence extending vertically down the ventral side from a constricted apical place in the annulus: prothallium ordinary, green. Two genera and about 26 species occur in tropical lands and the south temperate zone. The family is related to the Schizaeaceae but the habit is very different. The peculiar forking of the leaves, as well as the unusual annulus and peculiar dehiscence, are characteristic. A few species of Gleichenia are in cultivation in North America. 9. Osmundaceae (from the genus Osmunda, derived from Osmunder, the Saxon name of the god Thor). Osmunda Family. Fig. 3. Ferns of ordinary habit, rarely arborescent: rhizome mostly vertical, thick: leaves large, circinate, 1-3-pinnate, rarely thin and stomateless; petiole somewhat sheathing at the base; fibro- vascular bundle 1; veins forking: indusia wanting: sporangia scattered on the under side of the ordinary leaf, or on the margin or on both sides of modified fertile portions of the leaf, thin-walled, short-stout-pedicelled, globular; annulus imperfect, consisting of a group of cells on one side; line of dehiscence vertical, extending from this group up over the summit: prothallium ordinary, green. There are 3 genera and 10 or 12 species of general distribution, and others in the Australian region. Three species occur in the eastern United States. The family is related to the Gleicheniaceae and Schizaeaceae. The peculiar dehiscence, and the scattered sporangia with the annulus consisting of a group of cells, instead of a ring, are distinctive. The family has practically no economic importance, except as ornamental plants, except that the root masses are used as matrix on which to grow orchids and other epiphytic plants (see Osmundine). Some have been used in medicine, although their virtues are questionable. The family contains some of our most stately native ferns. All three genera are in American horticulture: Leptopteris (leaves thin and no stomates); Osmunda (Royal Fern, Cinnamon Fern), Todea (Grape Fern). Order 4. Hydropteridales 10. Marsileaceae (from the genus Marsilea, in honor of Giavanni Marsigli, or Aloysius Marsili, Italian naturalists.) Marsilea Family. Fig. 3. Perennial marsh or aquatic plants with filiform and creeping rhizomes: leaves all from rootstocks, circinate; rachis without blade or with four leaflets borne together at the apex; leaflets, when present, fan-shaped, rounded at apex; veins dichotomous: sporangia of two sorts, macro-sporangia bearing macrospores which give rise to egg-cells, and microsporangia bearing microspores which give rise to sperm-cells, both borne together in tiny chambers (sori) in globular capsule-like conceptacles (sporocarps) which arise from the rootstock or lower portion of the leaf, and are either stalked or sessile: male and female prothallia very much reduced, remaining inclosed within the spore-wall, which in the case of the macrospores early becomes ruptured on one side to expose the archegonia. Two genera (Marsilea and Pilularia) and about 60 species occur, of which 52 or 54 belong to Marsilea. The distribution is general, though mainly tropical. Marsilea is represented in the United States by one native and one introduced species. The family is closely related to the Salviniaceae, but the peculiar habit and unusual sporocarps are distinctive. At maturity, a gelatinous mass escapes from the sporocarp, and on this mass the sori are borne in somewhat characteristic fashion in different species. The leaflets of the clover-like leaves of Marsilea, in emersed forms, show sleep movement, as do those of clover. These leaflets float upon the water to the varying depths of which the petioles accommodate themselves; but the plant may grow emersed on mud, in which case the petioles are erect like clover. The leaves of Pilularia are filiform, pointed, and destitute of blade. In Australia, the sporocarps of Marsilea Nardu and M. Drummondii, which contain much starch and other nutritious material, are used by the natives for food. They are ground into a powder, mixed with water and baked. Fish and marsilea "fruits" form almost the sole food of some tribes. One species, Marsilea quadrifolia, is in cultivation in America for aquatic gardens. 11. Salviniaceae (from the genus Salvinia in honor of A. M. Salvini, Italian scientist). Salvinia Family. Fig. 3. Small, floating aquatic plants, resembling large Lemnas (Salvinia) or foliaceous liverworts (Azolla): stem reduced or wanting: leaves few, orbicular or oval (Salvinia); or numerous, minute and imbricated (Azolla) : sporangia and spores of two sorts as in Marsilea, but borne on basal columns in the single cavity of the sporocarp; at first both sorts of sporangia are present but only one kind matures so that the sporocarp becomes entirely "male" or entirely "female:" prothallium partly endosporous, only a portion of either the male or female prothallium emerging from the spore wall. The family has 2 genera and about 15 species, of which 11 belong to Salvinia; generally distributed but principally tropical. Each genus is represented in the eastern United States by one native species. The family is related to the Marsileaceae, but the habit, the structure of the sporocarps, and the separation of macrosporangia and microsporangia in different sporocarps are distinctive. The "roots" of Salvinia represent a modified leaf. Each leaf of Azolla is two-lobed, one lobe floating, the other submerged. A small cavity inclosed by the upper lobe is always inhabited by a nostoc-like alga, between which and the Azolla there is indication of a symbiotic relationship. Azolla possesses true roots. The family is of almost no economic importance. One species of Salvinia and two species of Azolla are occasionally grown in water-gardens. CLASS II. EQUISETINAE Order 5. Equisetales 12. Equisetaceae (from the genus Equisetum, meaning horse-bristle). Horse-tail Family. Fig. 1. Plants of striking appearance, often with rhizomes and with a straight, aerial, striated axis bearing whorls of connate, scale-like leaves at the nodes: from the nodes also frequently arise slender branches of different structure which bear different but still scale-like leaves: the stem is hollow, and besides the central canal often contains numerous additional large canals imbedded in the outer tissue: spores of one kind (not microspores and macrospores): sporangia 5-9, borne on the under surface of peltate, polygonal scales which form a terminal cone; dehiscence longitudinal; spores green, provided with several hygroscopic "elaters” which aid in dissemination: prothallia green, unisexual, the female largest, branched. A single genus and about 24 species are known, of which one section is tropical, the other of temperate distribution. Ten species are native in the eastern United States. The family is very distinct and shows no definite relationship to any existing plants. The habit, the undifferentiated spores, the peltate sporophylls, and the dioecious emergent prothallia are distinctive. The arrangement of the canals and also of the stomates along the stem are important in the distinction of species. The stems of E. hiemale, rich in silica, were formerly much used for scouring and for polishing woods, and are still used to some extent. E. arvense and E. sylvaticum have been used for polishing tin vessels, hence the name "tinweed." Several species have been used in medicine, as diuretics, E. giganteum is employed as an astringent. E, arvense and E. palustre are bad weeds in parts of Europe. Several species have been advertised by American dealers in native plants. CLASS III. LYCOPODINAE Order 6. Lycopodiales 13. Lycopodiaceae (from the genus Lycopodium, wolf-foot, from a fancied resemblance). Club-moss Family. Fig. 1. Branched plants of moderate size, stems often erect when short, usually prostrate, pendent, or creeping: leaves very numerous, small, subulate or oblong, moss-like, often imbricated; rarely the leaves all basal (Phylloglossum): sporophylls either similar to the leaves, or much modified and forming terminal “cones:" sporangia and spores of one sort (not macrospores and microspores), the former reniform, borne at the base of a leaf on the upper side; dehiscence longitudinal: prothallia more or less cylindrical or amorphous, in some species green, in others colorless, saprophytic, subterranean or subcortical. The club-moss family contains 2 genera and about 100 species, all but one of which belong to Lycopodium, distributed in all parts of the world except the very dry regions. The majority of the epiphytic species are tropical, but several terrestrial species extend to the arctic circle. Twelve of the species are native in the eastern United States. The family is not closely related to any other. The habit, the undifferentiated spores, and the prothallium are distinctive. The branching of Lycopodium is of two types, the dichotomous, and the monopodial (a central axis from which lateral branches arise). On these types sub-genera are based. The spores of Lycopodium (principally of L. clavatum), which are produced in great quantities, are used by apothecaries for coating pills, and by metal-workers. These spores are highly inflammable and were formerly used in theaters to produce flashlights. L. Selago is emetic, drastic, vermifugal, and emmenagogue. L. myrsinitis and L. catharticum are purgative. Several other species have been used locally for various complaints. The creeping stems of L. clavatum and L. complanatum are often used for Christmas and church decorations. Several species of Lycopodium (Club-moss, Ground Pine, Creeping Pine) are gathered or protected in America for decorative purposes or for the spores. Order 7. Selaqinellales 14. Selaginellaceae (from the genus Selaginella, diminutive of Selago, ancient name of Lycopodium). Selaginella Family. Fig 1. Moss-like or lycopodium-like plants, often of moderate size, usually profusely and dichotomously branched, more rarely monopodial; creeping, pendent or erect, sometimes climbing and several meters long, or minute and 1-3 cm. long: leaves moss-like, very small, usually densely placed, often imbricated, often of two sizes (the branches therefore strongly dorsiventral); ligule present, borne at the base of the leaf on the upper side: roots borne on "rhizophores" which are probably modified branches: spores of two sorts (microspores and macrospores) in separate sporangia, borne in the leaf axils: sporophylls frequently modified, forming a cone or spike: prothallia endosporous, the spore wall of the macrospores soon rupturing and exposing the archegonia. The one genus, Selaginella, and about 500 species are widely distributed, but mostly tropical. The majority prefer damp forests, but some (e.g., S. rupestris) are xerophytic. Three species are native in the eastern United States. The family is related to the Lycopodiaceae superficially, but not in the spores and in the prothallia, which are more closely allied to another family, the Isoetaceae. The habit, the foliar ligule, the undifferentiated spores, and the endosporous prothallia are distinctive. The spores of Selaginella have been used in the same manner as those of Lycopodium, but are less easily obtainable. S. concinna and S. obtusa have been used for diarrhea and dysentery. Several Mexican species are used locally for medicine. S. convoluta is employed in the East Indies as an aphrodisiac. The rosette-like S. lepidophylla of Mexico is the best-known "resurrection plant." When dry, it rolls into a ball and becomes brown; when the air is humid, the branches spread out and the green upper surfaces are exposed. Many species of Selaginella are in choice American collections, but very few are commonly in the trade. They are mostly grown for greenhouse and for table decoration under the name of "lycopodium." SPERMATOPHYTA or SIPHONOGAMIA (PHANEROGAMIA) SUB-DIVISION I. GYMNOSPERMAE Order 8. Cycadales 15. Cycadaceae (from the genus Cycas, the Greek name of a certain palm). Cycas Family. Fig. 4. More or less woody plants, with thick, unbranched, columnar or tuberous stem: leaves alternate, pinnate: stamens and carpels borne in cones or in temporarily terminal clusters: scales of the staminate cone bearing very many scattered anthers on the under side: the carpels open, not forming a closed ovary, either leaf-like pinnatifid and bearing marginal ovules, or peltate with 2 or more suspended ovules; the latter very large, often 1 inch long, orthotropous, with 1 integument, becoming drupe-like. Cycadaceae has 9 genera and about 85 species, distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Zamia is the largest genus, with 30 species. The family stands isolated among the gymnosperms. The palm-like habit, pinnate leaves, very numerous scattered stamens, and, in Cycas, the leaf-like carpel, are distinctive. Differences more important to the morphologist are to be found in the embryology, especially in the fertilization by motile sperm-cells. The leaves are circinate when unfolding, like those of a fern. The Cycadaceae represent an ancient family far more numerous in past geologic ages. Many fossil species are known. Various species of Cycas in the Moluccas and Japan, especially C. revoluta, yield a sago in the pithy part of the stem which the natives bake into bread. The Hottentots eat the pith of Encephalartos, making from it "Kafir bread.” The seeds of Cycas and Zamia are edible. The leaves of Cycas are used at funerals and church festivals as "palm branches." Several genera are in cultivation in America for greenhouse use and outdoors in the South. These are Bowenia; Ceratozamia of Mexico; Cycas (Sago Palm) of the far East; Dioon of Mexico; Encephalartos of South Africa; Macrozamia of Australia; Stangeria of South Africa; Zamia (Coontie, Comptie) of tropical America. Order 9. Ginkgoales 16. Ginkgoaceae (from the genus Ginkgo, the Japanese name). Ginkgo Family. Fig. 4. Much-branched tree with deciduous leaves: secondary wood without true vessels; resin-tubes present: leaves alternate, fan-shaped like the pinnules of Adiantum; veins forking: anthers borne in pedicelled pairs on a slender axis, without bracts, the whole somewhat catkin-like: no true pistillate cone; ovules borne in pairs at the summit of branched peduncles, each ovule surrounded at the base by a fleshy ring: fruit drupaceous. Fertilization is by means of motile sperms. A single genus of one species occurs in China and Japan. Fossil species are known. The family is distantly related to the Coniferae, but the peculiar foliage, as well as the absence of cone structure and the great reduction of sporophylls, is distinctive. Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo, maidenhair tree, Kew tree), the only species, is grown as a park tree. Order ID. Coniferales 17. Taxaceae (from the genus Taxus, the classical name, probably from the Greek meaning bow, for which the wood is used). Yew Family. Fig.5. Much-branched trees or shrubs, with resin-tubes in the bark and no true vessels in the secondary wood: leaves alternate, needle-like or scale-like, persistent: stamens borne on the protected portion of more or less apically thickened or peltate scales (sporophylls) forming a small cone: pistillate cones wanting; ovules borne singly or two together on a fleshy or rudimentary carpel (sporophyll), inverted or straight, the outer integument forming an arillus: fruit a dry seed surrounded by the fleshy often highly colored arillus; the receptacle also often enlarged and forming a fleshy part of the fruit. Taxaceae has 8 genera and about 70 species widely distributed, of which 40 belong to the genus Podocarpus. The family is related to the Coniferae, but differs in the reduction of the pistillate cone to a single ovule, in the modification or suppression of the sporophyll, and in the aril or arillus. The closely related Ginkgoaceae has a different staminate inflorescence. Fertilization is by means of pollen-tubes. The timber produced by the tropical eastern species of Podocarpus and of Dacrydium (heron pine and damion pine) is highly valued. The yew wood is hard and susceptible of a high polish. It is used in cabinet work and for bows. The seed and shoots of yew are said to be poisonous, but the arillus is harmless. In cultivation in America are a few genera for ornamental purposes: Cephalotaxus, East Asia; Podocarpus, Chile, Japan, Australia, grown in the South; Taxus (Yew), Europe, Asia, North America; Torreya (California Nutmeg), California to Florida. 18. Pinaceae (from the genus Pinus, the classical Latin name). Pine Family. Fig. 5. Tree or shrub, with no true vessels in the secondary wood, but with resin- tubes: leaves linear, or needle-like, or scale-like, alternate or opposite, evergreen or deciduous: anthers and ovules both in true cones plainly subtended by scales (sporophylls); the staminate scales usually bearing 2-6, rarely more, anthers on the under side; the pistillate bearing 1-2, rarely many, ovules on the upper side, or peltate and ovule-bearing under the crown or at its base; ovules with 1 integument: fruit a dry woody cone with dry, often winged seeds between the scales; or berry-like through the union of the fleshy cone-scales. Sub-family 1. Cupressineae.—Cone-scales opposite; ovules erect: leaves opposite or whorled. Sub-family 2. Abietineae.—Cone-scales alternate; ovules inverted: leaves alternate. There are 25 genera and about 240 species, widely distributed but most abundant in temperate regions. The largest genus is Pinus with 70 species. The family is related to the Taxaceae and Ginkgoaceae, from which it differs in the presence of true staminate and pistillate cones. It also differs from the latter in the absence of motile sperm-cells. The Pinaceae, like other Gymnosperms, is an old group, more abundant in former geologic ages. Many fossil species are known. The Sequoias of California were formerly more abundant, extending to Greenland. The young plants of many Cupressineae possess foliage quite different in appearance from the mature foliage, the leaves being longer and more spreading. These juvenile forms have been called Retinisporas, a name which has been applied also to all cultivated species of Chamaecyparis. Juniper "berries" are fleshy cones with peltate, fused scales. The leaves of Larix, Pseudolarix and Cedrus are deciduous. The branchlets and leaves are deciduous in Taxodium. The cone-scales of many Abietineae are double, an outer thinner 3-toothed scale, and a thick inner scale that bears the ovules (see Pseudotsuga). Among the Pinaceae are some of our most valuable timber trees; e. g., cedar, arborvitae, spruce, fir, hemlock and redwood. The resin from various pines when distilled yields spirits of turpentine and rosin; when dry-distilled, it yields tar. Venice turpentine is the resinous exudation of European larches: Canada balsam that of Abies balsamea. Dammar resin is from the Malayan Agathis Dammara. Kauri resin is the semi-fossilized resin of Agathis australis of Australia and New Zealand. Sandarac resin is from Callitris quadrivalvis of Northwest Africa. Amber is the fossilized resin of prehistoric conifers around the Baltic. Oil of savin is from the leaves and twigs of Juniperus sabina, and oil of cedar from Thuya occidentalis. Juniper berries, from J. communis of Europe and America, are diuretic and also used for flavoring gin. Edible seeds are produced by Pinus Pinea (stone pine) of the Mediterranean, P. Cembra of Europe and Siberia, P. Parryana and P. edulis of the southwestern United States, Podocarpus neriifolia of the East Indies, Araucaria braziliana of Brazil, and A. Bidwillii of Australia. Bread is made by the Laps and Eskimos from the inner bark of Pinus sylvestris and Abies alba; also from various Pinaceae by our northwestern Indians. Deodar (Cedrus Deodara) is sacred to the Hindoos. Cedrus Libani is the cedar of Lebanon. Pine bark was formerly used for tanning. Many genera are in cultivation in America. Among these are: Abies (Fir, Balsam); Araucaria (Norfolk Island Pine, Monkey Puzzle); Callitris (Cypress Pine); Cedrus (Cedar of Lebanon, Deodar); Chamaecyparis (White Cedar, Yellow Cedar, Hinoki Cypress, Sawara Cypress, Retinispora, Japanese Cedar); Cryptomeria; Cupressus (Cypress, Monterey Cypress); Juniperus (Red Cedar, Juniper, Savin); Larix (Larch, Tamarack, Hackmatack); Libocedrus (Incense Cedar, White Cedar); Picea (Spruce); Pinus (Pine, Pinnon, Soledad); Pseudolarix (Golden Larch); Pseudotsuga (Douglas Spruce, Red Fir); Sciadopitys (Umbrella Pine); Sequoia (Big Tree of California, Redwood); Taxodium (Bald Cypress, Deciduous Cypress); Thuya (Arborvitae, White Cedar); Thuyopsis; Tsuga (Hemlock Spruce). Order 11. Gnetales 19. Gnetaceae (from the genus Gnetum, derived from Gnemon, said to be the old Malay name of the plant). Gnetum Family. Fig. 5. Very peculiar semi-woody plants of diverse habit: leaves large and broad, or modified, or reduced, or opposite, or whorled: no resin-tubes in the stem; secondary wood containing true vessels: true flowers present, with a 2-4-parted perianth, unisexual, rarely bisexual; stamens 2-8; pistillate perianth becoming juicy or wing-like in fruit and inclosing one naked orthotropous seed with 1 or 2 integuments. The family consists of 3 genera and about 35-40 species, widely distributed. It is distinguished from the Coniferae by the presence of a perianth, the absence of resin-tubes, and the presence of vessels in the secondary wood. The endosperm development, also, approaches that of the Angiosperms. The fertilization is by means of pollen-tubes. The three genera are very distinct: Ephedra, of the tropics of both hemispheres, is much branched, with slender jointed striate equisetum-like stems, leaves scale-like at the distant nodes; Gnetum of South America, except one species, is a group of vines or shrubs with large broad leaves like those of an Angiosperm; Welwitschia of South Africa is a desert plant with a thick subterranean stem bearing two ribbon-like leaves 6 feet long, lying flat on the ground, and with a terminal cluster of cone-like flower-spikes. It is doubtful whether any of these are regularly in the American trade. SUB-DIVISION II. ANGIOSPERMAE CLASS I. MONOCOTYLEDONEAE Order 12. Pandanales 20. Typhaceae (from the genus Typha, the old Greek name). Cattail Family. Fig. 6. Perennial marsh herbs, with creeping rootstocks, and long-linear, erect, mostly basal leaves: flowers monoecious, naked, in a dense terminal spike, which is staminate above and pistillate below, each sex subtended by one bract-like spathe; perianth 0; stamens 2-5; filaments connate, bearing long, silky hairs; carpels 1: ovary 1-celled, raised on a stipe which also bears long, silky hairs: ovule 1, suspended; style slender: fruit a nutlet; seed albuminous. A single genus and about 12 species occur in the tropical and temperate zones. Fossil species are known. The family is closely related to the Sparganiaceae, with which it was formerly united. These two families constitute a very distinct group of simple-flowered Monocotyledons. The habit, the flowers borne in spikes without perianth, the hairy pedicels, the absence of bracts, and the simple pistil, are together distinctive. The starchy rootstocks are sometimes used for food. The leaves are woven into matting, and into chair-bottoms, and are used for calking barrels. The pollen has been used as a substitute for the spores of Lycopodium. The rootstock is used in East Asia for dysentery and urethritis, and the leaves in various localities for thatching cottages. A vain attempt has been made to utilize the silky hairs of the fruit for making velvet. Two species of Typha (Cattail Flag, Reed Mace), both native, are in the American trade for water-gardens. 21. Pandanaceae (from the genus Pandanus, derived from a Malay name). Screw-pine Family. Fig. 6. Shrubby or arborescent plants: stems simple or branched, with prop-roots: leaves spirally arranged, densely placed, sword-shaped, often canaliculate, clasping, stiff; edges and midrib often spiny-serrate: flowers on simple or branched spadices, dioecious, naked: spathes caducous; stamens densely packed, separated or united in fascicles, scattered over the spadix, and not in definite flowers; pistillate spadix simple; ovaries numerous, coherent in bundles, or isolated, not in real flowers; stigma sessile; ovules solitary or several: fruit drupaceous, cohering in multiple fruits; seed albuminous. There are 3 genera and about 350 species, natives of the tropics of the Old World. The family is unique. The floral structure, while much like that of Typha, suggests also the Palmaceae. As in Typha, actual flowers cannot here be distinguished. The fleshy pericarps of some are eaten. The strong odor of the staminate flowers is either agreeable or disagreeable, depending on the species; in the former case the flowers are used for perfumery. The leaves of Pandanus utilis are made into bags for shipping coffee, and the plant is now cultivated for that purpose in the West Indies. Ten to 15 species of Pandanus (Screw Pine, Candelabrum Tree, Chandelier Tree) are in greenhouse cultivation in America. Order 13. Helobiae 22. Naiadaceae (from the genus Naias, derived from the Greek, meaning a water nymph). Pondweed Family. Fig. 6, Immersed aquatic herbs: leaves mostly cauline, opposite or alternate, the floating often differing from the submerged in shape and texture: flowers axillary or spicate, bisexual or unisexual; perianth of 4 herbaceous segments, or wanting; stamens 1-4, rarely more; carpels 1-9, mostly distinct, 1-celled, 1-ovuled: fruit a nutlet; endosperm none; embryo curved, rarely straight. Naiadaceae has 10 genera and about 100 species widely distributed, but most abundant in temperate regions. The largest genus is Potamogeton with 50 species. The family is a very heterogeneous one which has been divided or united in many ways by different authors. As here treated it is distinguished by the aquatic habit, greenish, often reduced perianth, few stamens, and few, separate, 1-seeded carpels. A spathe-like bract usually incloses the inflorescence. The dried leaves of Zostera and Posidonia have been used since ancient times in Venice to pack glassware. They are now widely used for packing. Plants of Potamogeton and Zostera are employed as manure. Several species of Potamogeton (Pondweed) and one of Zannichellia are possibly in the American trade, for water-gardens. 23. Aponogetonaceae (from the genus Aponogeton, derivation obscure). Aponogeton Family. Aquatic herbs with tuberous rhizomes, and basal, submerged or floating leaves; blade linear to oval, palmately parallel-veined, with transverse veinlets; the general tissue between the veins often wanting, thus producing a remarkable openwork latticed effect: flowers spicate, bisexual, regular, hypogynous; perianth of several petaloid parts; stamens usually 6, rarely more; carpels mostly 3, rarely 4-6, separate; ovules 2-6, mostly basal, anatropous: fruit pouch-like; endosperm none. The single genus, with its 15 species occurs in Africa, Madagascar, tropical Asia and Australia. The family is related to the Naiadaceae, with which it was formerly united, and from which it is distinguished by the petaloid perianth, several ovules, and straight embryo. The roots are sometimes eaten by natives. Aponogeton distachyus (Cape pondweed, water hawthorn) is cultivated in water-gardens. 24. Alismaceae (from the genus Alisma, the Greek name). Water-plantain Family. Fig. 7. Herbaceous marsh plants with milky juice: leaves mostly basal, sheathing, with a scale in the axil; blade various, floating or erect, often sagittate, varying in size and width with the depth of the water, palmately parallel-veined with cross veinlets: flowers bisexual or unisexual, regular, hypogynous, in whorls of 3; sepals 3, more or less hyaline; petals 3, white and petaloid; stamens 6 to many, in several whorls; carpels very many, separate or rarely coherent, spirally arranged or in a whorl, 1-ovuled, rarely 2-5-ovuled: fruit dry, rarely dehiscent; seed basal, anatropous, exalbuminous; embryo curved. The family has 10 genera and about 50 species, distributed throughout the warmer and temperate zones. The family is related to the Butomaceae and Juncaginaceae, which are all peculiar in having an axillary intravaginal scale. The whorled flowers, differentiated perianth, numerous carpels, and mostly solitary, basal, exalbuminous seeds are distinctive. The acrid juice formerly led to the occasional use of these plants in medicine. The tubers and rhizomes of Sagittaria were eaten by the American Indians as wappato, and are cultivated in China. They are said to come into the Chinese market at San Francisco, preserved in liquid. Two genera are in cultivation for water-gardens: Alisma (Water Plantain), native; and Sagittaria (Arrowhead), some native. 25. Butomaceae (from the genus Butomus, signifying ox + to cut, in reference to the rough leaves). Fig. 7. Aquatic or marsh herbs: leaves basal, with an axial scale, sometimes with milky juice; blade linear or oval; veins palmately parallel with cross veinlets, or nearly veinless: flowers solitary or umbelled, bisexual, regular, hypogynous; sepals 3, subherbaceous; petals 3, colored, imbricated; stamens 9 or more, whorled; carpels 6 or more, separate; ovules numerous, borne between the margins and midrib of the carpel: fruit dry, dehiscent; seed anatropous, exalbuminous; embryo straight or curved. The family contains 4 genera and about 5 species, natives of the temperate and tropical zones of the Old World, and the tropics of the New World. The family is related to the Alismaceae and Juncaginaceae, from the former of which it differs principally in the numerous ovules and their peculiar position. The roots and seeds of Butomus were once used as emollients. The baked roots of Butomus are eaten in North Asia. Two genera are in cultivation for water-gardens: Butomus (Flowering Rush), and Limnocharis (Water Poppy). 2o. Hydrocharitaceae (from the genus Hydrocharis, derived from the Greek meaning water and rejoice). Frog's-bit Family. Fig. 7. Submerged aquatic herbs, rarely floating, the flowers usually at first inclosed by a 2-bracted spathe: leaves alternate or opposite, very diverse, cordate, linear or ribbon-like: flowers usually unisexual, regular, epigynous; perianth in 2 series, composed of 3 imbricated or valvate, calicoid parts, and 3 convolute petaloid parts, rarely of only 3 divisions; stamens in 1 to several series of 3, some often staminodia; carpels 2-15; ovary inferior, 1-celled with parietal placenta, or imperfectly several-celled; stigmas 3-6: fruit not regularly dehiscent, submerged, somewhat fleshy; seeds many, exalbuminous. There are 14 genera and about 40 species widely distributed. The family is related to the Alismaceae and Naiadaceae. The differentiation into calyx and corolla, the usually numerous stamens, the inferior, 1-celled ovary with parietal placentae, and the exalbuminous seeds are together characteristic. The plants of this family are very diverse in appearance and often striking. Fossil species are known. The pollination of Vallisneria is very remarkable. (See Kerner and Oliver, "Natural History of Plants"). Elodea canadensis, introduced into Europe from America, has there become so abundant as to impede navigation. The plants of Hydrocharis, Stratiotes, and Elodea are used as fodder and as manure in Europe. The starchy rootstocks of Ottelia and Boottia are eaten in India as pot-herbs; also the tubers and fruits of Enalus. The fibers from the leaves of Enalus are used in India. Vallisneria alternifolia is employed in India in the preparation of sugar. Five genera are in cultivation in America, mostly for aquaria: Elodea (Waterweed, Ditch-Moss, Water Thyme, Water Pest); Hydrocharis (Frog's-Bit); Limnobium (American Frog's-Bit); Stratiotes (Water Soldier, Water Aloe); Vallisneria (Eel-Grass, Tape-Grass). Order 14. Glumiflorae 27. Gramineae (from the Latin signifying grass). Grass Family. Fig. 8. Herbs, or sometimes almost tree-like: stems hollow or solid: leaves usually linear, in 2 ranks; composed of a sheath which is usually open down the front, a sessile blade, and a ligule at the juncture of blade and sheath: flowers bisexual or unisexual, naked, or with the perianth reduced to 1-3 tiny scales, borne in specialized spikelets composed of 3 or more 2-ranked scales, the first 2 empty (called empty glumes), the others termed flowering glumes or lemmas, and 1 scale on each secondary flower-bearing axis, called a palet or palea; stamens 2-3, exserted for wind-pollination; carpel 1; ovary 1, 1-celled, l-ovuled; stigmas feathery, usually 2: fruit a caryopsis; seed with endosperm, and embryo with an absorbing organ. Gramineae is a family of 300-400 genera and perhaps 5,000 species distributed all over the earth. The largest genera are Panicum with 300-400 species, Paspalum with 160 species, and Poa with 100 species. The Gramineae and Cyperaceae form a very distinct group. The usually hollow stem, the open sheaths, the ligule, the 2-ranked leaves, and the peculiar spikelet-structure are the best characters to separate Gramineae from Cyperaceae. The Indian corn is one of the most modified of grasses. It is monoecious. The staminate spikelets are arranged on finger-like branches of the tassel at the summit of the plant; the pistillate spikelets are borne on the cob, which is supposed to be composed of similar finger-like portions grown together. Each spikelet is 2-flowered, but only 1 flower bears an ovary. The kernel is this ovary, and the chaff on the cob represent the glumes and palets. The grasses are divided into 13 tribes. The grasses are among the most useful of plants. The following, among others, are, or have been, used as medicine: Rhizome of Agropyron repena (quick- or quack-grass) is emollient, and aperient (several other grasses have the same properties). Root of Arundo Donax (reed) is diuretic and sudorific. Phragmites communis was formerly considered depurative and anti-syphilitic. Calamagrostis was used by the French peasants as a diuretic. Perotis latifolia is used in India for the same purpose, as are also the seeds of Coix Lacryma-Jobi in China. The roots of Manisuria granularis are used in India for intestinal troubles. The aromatic, fragrant roots of various Andropogons (or Cymbopogons) are used for medicine and for perfume in India and elsewhere, e. g., A. Nardus (false spikenard, citronella), A. citratus (lemon-grass). A. lanier and A. Schoenanthus (sweet rush, ginger-grass, geranium-grass) are used in Africa and Arabia as a stimulant, antispasmodic and diaphoretic, and for perfume. The following are used for food: Seeds of wheat, barley, rye, oats, rice, Indian corn and millet; also seeds of Andropogon arundinaceus var. vulgare (sorghum), and var. Durra (durra). Pennisetum americanum (pearl millet) is an important food of the negro races, and Poi abyssinica and Eleusine are important in East Africa. Sugar is obtained from the stems of several species, most important of which are Saccharum officinaruni (sugar-cane), and Andropogon arundinaceus var. saccharatus or A. Sorghum (sugar sorghum). Many grasses are used as fodder for cattle, as, for instance, our pasture and hay grasses: Poa pratensis (June grass, Kentucky blue grass), Phleum pratense (timothy), Festuca ovina, etc. (fescue), Agrostis alba (red-top), Dactylis glomerata (orchard-grass), Cynodon Dactylon (Bermuda-grass). Some grasses are poisonous to stock, e.g., Lolium temulentum (darnel), and the Peruvian Festuca quadridentata. Straw from cereals is used for matting, upholstery, bedding, hats and for making paper. The bamboos yield very important building material in the East. Like the palms, the bamboos are used for almost every conceivable purpose, and are among the most useful of plants. Several grasses, other than those above mentioned, contain a fragrant principle, e. g., roots of Vetiveria zizanioides (vetiver or kus-kus of India) used to perfume rooms, and to keep insects out of clothing. Hierochloe odorata (vanilla- or holy-grass) is used in Europe in religious ceremonies, and by the American Indians for making baskets. Anthoxanthum odoratum is the European sweet-grass, now introduced into America. The most important ornamental species are Phalaris arundinacea, Stipa pennata, Cortaderia argentea, Lagurus ovatus, Hordeum jubatum, Miscanthus sinensis, Briza, Arundo, Phragmites, Erianthus, Pennisetum, Thysanolaena, and Bamboos. In America 70-80 genera are cultivated, or are important as natural fodder plants or weeds. Among these are: Agropyron (Quack-Grass, Couch-G., Quick-G.); Agrostis (Bent-G., Red-Top, Cloud-G.,Ticklc-G., Fly-away-G.); Aira (Hair-G.); Andropogon (Silver-beard-G., Johnson-G., Lemon-G.); Anthoxanthum (Sweet Vernal-G.); Ammophila (Beach-G., Marram-G.); Arundinaria (Large Cane, Switch Cane, Scotch Cane); Arundo (Giant Reed); Avena (Oats); Bamboo; Briza (Quaking-G.); Bromus (Brome-G., Rescue-G.); Calamagrostis (Reed Bent-G., Blue-joint-G., Pony-G.); Calamovilfa (Purple Bent-G.); Cenchrus (Sand-bur, Bur-G.); Chloris (Finger-G.); Cinna; Coix (Job's Tears, Tear-G., Corn Beads); Cortaderia (Pampas-G.); Cynodon (Bermuda-G.); Cynosurus (Crested Dog's-tail, Silky-awned Dog's-tail); Dactylis (Cock's-foot, Orchard-G.); Dactyloctenium (Crowfoot-G.); Desmazeria (Spike-G.): Deschampsia (Hair-G.. Hassock-G.); Digitaria (Crab-G., Finger-G.); Distichlis (Salt-G., Marsh Spike-G.); Echinochloa (Barnyard-G.); Eleusine (Crab- G., Yard-G., Dog's-tail, Wire-G., African Millet); Elymus (Lyme-G., Wild Rye, Terrel-G.); Eragrostis; Erianthus (Woolly Beard-G., Plume-G., Wool-G., Ravenna-G.); Euchlaena (Teosinte); Festuca (Fescue-G.); Glyceria or Panicularia (Reed Meadow-G., Manna-G.); Cortaderia; Hierochloe (Vanilla-G., Holy-G., Seneca-G., Sweet-scented-G.); Holcus (Meadow Soft-G.); Hordeum (Squirrel-tail-G., Wild Barley, Barley); Hystrix or Asprella(Bottle-G.); Lolium (Darnel, Rye-G.); Milium (Wild Millet-G.); Miscanthus (Eulalia, Himalaya Fairy-G.); Oplismenus; Oryza (Rice); Oryzopsis (Mountain Rice); Panicum (Panic-G., Old-Witch-G., Millet, Broom Corn Millet); Pennisetum (Pearl Millet); Phalaris (Canary-G., Gardener's Garters); Phleum (Timothy-G., Herd's-G.); Phragmites (Common Reed); Phyllostachys (Bamboo, in part); Poa (Blue-G., Kentucky Blue-G., Meadow-G.); Saccharum (Sugar-cane); Secale (Rye); Setaria (Millet, Hungarian-G., Foxtail-G., Pigeon-G.); Spartina (Cord-G.); Sphenopholis; Stenotaphrum (St. Augustine-G.); Stipa (Feathered-G., Esparto-G., Porcupine-G.); Tripsacum (Gama-G., Sesame-G.); Triticum (Wheat, Spelt). 28. Cyperaceae (from the genus Cyperus, the ancient Greek name). Sedge Family. Fig. 9. Herbaceous plants with grass-like habit and solid stems: leaves alternate, in 3, rarely 2, vertical rows, linear; sheaths closed: flowers bisexual or unisexual, regular, hypogynous, borne in variously disposed spikelets, subtended and hidden by overlapping scales none of which are regularly empty as in the grasses; no true palets; perianth reduced to bristles, scales, or 0; stamens 2-3; carpels 2-3; ovary 1-celled, 1-ovuled; style 1; stigmas 2-3: fruit an achene; seeds basal, anatropous, albuminous. There are 65 genera and about 3,000 species, inhabiting the whole earth. More than 500 species belong to the genus Carex. 400 to Cyperus, and 200 to Scirpus. They are abundant in swampy regions. The family is closely related to the Gramineae, from which it differs in the often 3-ranked leaves, solid stem, the absence of palets and of regular empty glumes, and the presence, in most cases, of a perianth and 3 carpels. Most divergent from the ordinary is Carex, the flowers of which are monoecious, and the pistillate, though naked, are inclosed in a flask-shaped structure called a perigynium, which probably corresponds to the modified palet of the grass spikelet. The elongated perianth forms the wool of the wool-grass or cotton-grass. The scales of the spikelet are in 2 ranks in Cyperus and Dulichium; in many ranks in the other genera. The Cyperaceae are of far less economic importance than the Gramineae. The rhizomes of several species of Carex were formerly used as a remedy in syphilis. Scirpus lacustris is astringent and diuretic, but other species also possess this property. The foliage of Eriophorum has been used for dysentery. The spongy pith of the Eriophorum stem was used by German peasants for tapeworm. The tubers of Cyperus esculentus, now a weed in all countries, were cultivated by the Egyptians for food. The leaves of many species of Cyperaceae have been woven into mats, chair-bottoms, and the like. The Egyptians made parchment from the pith of Cyperus Papyrus. The rhizomes of Eleocharis tuberosa are used in the manufacture of starch, in China and India. Cyperus scariosus and C. pertenuis, of India, are fragrant and used in making perfumery. Some carices are used in making rugs. Several genera are in cultivation in America, mostly for water-gardens, table decorations, and the conservatory: Carex (Sedge); Cyperus (Umbrella Palm, Egyptian Paper Plant, Egyptian Papyrus, Chufa); Dulichium; Eleocharis; Eriophorum (Cotton-Grass, Wool-Grass); Mapania; Scirpus (Bulrush Sedge). Order 15. Principes 29. Palmaceae (from the Latin name palma). Palm Family. Fig. 9. Woody plants of various habit, low, or arborescent, or climbing, usually unbranched, sometimes spinescent: leaves forming a crown at summit of stem except in Calamus, alternate, coriaceous, palmately or pinnately veined, entire or pinnatifid or palmatifid, often very large: inflorescence a simple or much-branched spadix, with or without a subtending spathe, the latter often woody; flowers unisexual, rarely bisexual, often sunk in the spadix; perianth of 6 parts in 2 series, greenish, often woody, valvate in the staminate, imbricated or convolute in the pistillate flower; stamens 6, rarely 3 or many, on or around a disk, separate or united; carpels 3, rarely fewer, separate or forming a 1-3-celled ovary; each cell 1-ovuled, but all except one seed in the ovary may abort; stigmas usually 3: fruit a berry or drupe; pericarp fleshy or fibrous; seeds albuminous. Palmaceae has 128 genera and about 1,000 species of tropical distribution; 10-15 species are found in the southern United States. The largest genera are Calamus with about 200 species, Bactris with 90 species and Chamaedorea with 60 species. The family is very distinct, having no close relatives, but it evidently belongs to the spathe- and spadix-bearing group. The habit, coriaceous plicate leaves which are entire in the bud, the woody flowers and inflorescence, the 3 sepals and 3 petals, the usually 6 stamens, and the 3 carpels, each with 1 seed, are together distinctive. Palm leaves are always entire in the bud, and if later pinnatifid or palmatifid, become so on unfolding. In this respect the palms are unique. The leaves are plicate in the bud, and, on opening, the plates of the fan expand and either remain united or, more frequently, split down along the folds. In the pinnate species the rachis between the folds elongates so that the divisions are separated, and the well-known palm leaf is produced. The splitting may be at the top of the fold, or at the bottom, depending on the genus, and is an important characteristic in classification. Some of the largest seeds in the plant kingdom belong to the Palmaceae, as, for example, the coconut. This fruit is produced from an originally 3-celled ovary, 2 cells of which abort. Next to the grasses, the palms are the most generally useful of all plants. It is said that probably there is not a species but that is useful in some way. Many yield textile fibers. The wood is used to build houses and the leaves to thatch the roofs. The leaves are also made into mats, baskets, hats, and the like. The fibrous bud-sheaths are used as hats, or for fiber. Some species contain starch or sugar in the trunk. The fruits of many contain sugar, protein, starch, or oil. Comparatively few are medicinal. "The palm is called King of Plants and is said to supply all the wants of an inhabitant of the tropical zone. It yields sugar, milk, solid cream, wine, vinegar, oil, cordage, cloth, cups, wood for building, thatch and other products." Coconuts, the fruit of Cocos nucifera, form one of the most important foods of the tropics. The date fruit (Phoenix dactylifera of the Sahara) is also important. Metroxylon Rumphii, and other species, yield sago. A fermented liquor known as palm wine, laymi or arrack, is made from the juice of Arenga saccharifera, Borassus flabelliformis, Metroxylon Rumphii, Mauritia vinifera, and others. The central bud of the cabbage palm and others is used for food. Most palm oil is from the fruit of Elaeis guineensis of West Africa, which is now cultivated in America. It is used like olive oil, or in the North for making soap. Vegetable wax is obtained from the leaves and stems of Ceroxylon andicolum of Peru, also from Copernicia cerifera (carnauba wax). The famous giant double coconut is from Lodoicea sechellarum of the Seychelle Islands. The fruit of Areca Catechu of the East Indies and India yields an astringent juice which, mixed with the leaves of the betel pepper and lime, is chewed by the inhabitants of tropical Asia. Coconut fiber is important for making ship cables. The very slender stems of Calamus, often 300 feet or even 500 feet long (it is reported 1,200 or 1,800 feet, but not verified) and scarcely larger than a pipe-stem or a finger, are called rattan, and used for furniture. Much of the dragon's blood of the druggists is the red juice of the fruit of Calamus Draco. Palm-leaf fans are made from the palmately veined leaves of several species. The saw palmetto (Sabal serrulata) of the southern states is medicinal. The seeds of Phytelephas macrocarpa have a very hard endosperm known as vegetable ivory, used for carving as a substitute for ivory. Probably 100 genera are in the trade. Except in the tropics, they are almost entirely ornamental greenhouse plants. Among these are: Areca (Betel Nut); Attalea; Bactris; Calamus; Caryota (Fish-tail Palm, Wine Palm, Toddy Palm); Ceroxylon (Wax Palm); Chamaedorea; Cocos (Coco Palm, Coconut, Pindo Tree); Corypha (Talipot Palm); Daemonorops; Elaeis (Oil Palm); Erythea (Blue Palm); Geonoma; Hedyscepe (Umbrella Palm); Howea (Flat Palm, Thatch Leaf Palm, Curly Palm); Livistona; Oreodoxa (Royal Palm, Cabbage Palm); Phoenix (Date Palm); Phytelephas (Ivory Palm); Rhapis; Rhapidophyllum (Blue Palmetto, Needle Palmetto); Sabal (Dwarf Palmetto, Blue Palm, Cabbage Palmetto); Serenaea (Saw Palmetto); Thrinax; Trachycarpus (Fortune's Palm); Washingtonia or Pritchardia (Weeping Palm). Order 16. Synanthae 30. Cyclanthaceae (from the generic name Cyclanthus, which has reference to the spiral arrangement of the flowers). Cyclanthus Family. Fig. 9. Stemless or caulescent, palm-like, somewhat woody plants, often climbing: leaves alternate, coriaceous, cleft or parted: flowers in a dense terminal unbranched spike (spadix), with several bract-like spathes beneath; staminate flowers grouped in 4 bundles accompanying the pistillate, or both in conspicuous alternating spirals; staminate perianth reduced and fimbriate, or 0; stamens 6 to many, borne in groups; perianth of the pistillate flower 0, or of 4 fleshy parts accompanied by 4 long, twisted, exerted staminodia; carpels 4, united below, sunken in the spadix; ovary 1-celled, many-ovuled, with parietal placentae: fruit multiple, a berry-like spike. The tissue of the spadix splits into valves, coiling up from the base to apex and thus inclosing the fruitlets which deliquesce. This family has 5 genera and about 50 species, of which 35 belong to Carludovica. They are confined to the tropics of America, and stand intermediate between the Palmaceae and Araceae. The family is distinguished by the combination of palm-like foliage, numerous ovules, thick spadix, and closely associated staminate and pistillate flowers. The flowers of Cyclanthus bipartitus of Brazil are vanilla-scented, cultivated, and cooked with meat as an aphrodisiac. The leaves of Carludovica palmata furnish the material for the panama hats. Several species of Carludovica are in the American trade as greenhouse plants. Order 17. Spathiflorae 31. Araceae (from the genus Arum, the ancient name of these plants). Arum Family. Fig. 10. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, of the most diverse habit and appearance, often climbing, or epiphytic with aerial roots, rarely floating, usually subfleshy; juice sometimes milky: leaves ensiform or broad, parallel- or netted-veined, entire or variously cut: flowers bisexual or unisexual, rarely reduced to a single stamen and carpel, regular, hypogynous or epigynous, disposed on an unbranched fleshy axis (spadix), which is usually subtended by a special bract (spathe); perianth 0, or of 4-8 parts; stamens 1 to many; carpels 1 to several; ovary superior or inferior, 1 to several-celled, 1 to many-ovuled; style and stigmas various: fruit a berry; seeds albuminous, outer integument fleshy. Araceae has over 100 genera and about 900 species, widely distributed, but most abundant in the tropics, especially as epiphytes in the deep, damp forests. The majority in the temperate regions are swamp-plants. The largest genera are Philodendron with 100 species, and Arisaema with 50 species. The family stands as the type of the spathe-bearing plants. Its close relatives are the Lemnaceae, Palmaceae, and Cyclanthaceae, from which it is distinguished more by general habit and texture than by structural details. The pollination of the Araceae is often complicated and remarkable (see Kerner and Oliver). The transfer of the pollen is mostly accomplished by flies, which are frequently attracted by lurid color and carrion scent. The leaves of Monstera are remarkable for their peculiar perforations, while the massive petioles of other Araceae are sometimes mottled like snakeskin. Pistia is a much-reduced floating aquatic, transitional to the Lemnaceae. The aerial roots of the epiphytic species are frequently covered with a special water-absorbing tissue. The unfolding spathes of the Araceae are noted for the heat evolved. The tissues are usually very mucilaginous and filled with needle-like crystals of calcium oxalate. These crystals are supposed to give the pungent flavor to Indian turnip simply by mechanically penetrating the tongue. Many species have been used locally for medicine. Lagenandra toxicaria of Ceylon is extremely poisonous. Dieffenbachia Seguine and Arisaema, triphyllum are violent irritants when chewed, causing the mouth to swell. Arum maculatum of Europe was used by the ancients as an excitant. The roots of Symplocarpus have been used for asthma and colds. The roots of Acorus Calamus (sweet flag) are aromatic and used for coughs, colds, and the like. The thick rootstocks and roots of many have been used for food, e.g., Orontium aquaticum of North America, Colocasia antiquorum of India, Alocasia macrorhiza (taro) of the Pacific Islands, and Peltandra virginica of North America. The rhizomes of Arisaema maculatum and Calla palustris, mixed with cereals, according to Linnaeus, serve for food among the Laps and Finns. Portland arrowroot is derived from Arums. The delicately flavored, juicy fruits of Monstera deliciosa are eaten in Mexico. The shoots of Xanthosoma sagittifolium, called caraibe cabbage, are eaten as a vegetable in the Antilles. The aerial roots of aroids are used to tie bundles of sarsaparilla sent to Europe and America. Because of their odd habit and strange appearance, as well as, in some cases, for real beauty, many Araceae are in cultivation, mostly as conservatory plants. Many genera are in the American trade. Among these are: Acorus (Sweet Flag); Alocasia; Amorphophallus (Devil's Tongue, Snake Palm, Stanley's Wash-Tub); Anthurium; Arisaema (Indian Turnip, Jack-in-the-Pulpit, Dragon Root, Fringed Calla); Arum (Black Calla, Solomon's Lily, Lord and Ladies, Cuckoo Pint, Wake-Robin of England); Biarum; Caladium; Calla; Colocasia; Dieffenbachia; Helicodiceros (Hairy Arum) ; Monstera (Ceriman, Shingle Plant); Nephthytis; Orontium (Golden Club) ; Peltandra (Water Arum) ; Pistia (Water Lettuce, Tropical Duckweed); Pothos; Sauromatum; Schizmatoglottis; Spathiphyllum; Symplocarpus, or Spathyema (Skunk Cabbage); Xanthosma (Malanga); Zantedeschia, or Richardia (Calla Lily, Lily-of-the-Nile). 32. Lemnaceae (from the genus Lemna, an old Greek name of uncertain origin). Duckweed Family. Fig. 10. Tiny aquatic plants floating or submerged, the plant body reduced to an oval or oblong, flat or globular thallus, which multiplies rapidly by marginal buds, and may or may not bear 1 or more roots on the under side: flowers unisexual, naked, monoecious; the staminate consisting of 1 stamen; the pistillate of 1 flask-shaped, 1-celled pistil, with several ovules; the latter orthotropous or anatropous, the micropyle transformed into a cap: fruit a several-seeded utricle. There are 3 genera and about 25 species, distributed over the whole earth, except the arctics. The family is related to the Araceae, from which it is supposed to have degenerated. The flowers, which rarely occur, are borne in minute pits in the edge or upper surface of the thallus, either 1 staminate and 1 pistillate, or 2 staminate and 1 pistillate together; in some genera provided with a spathe corresponding to the spathe in the Araceae. The roots, when present, are balancing organs to resist the upsetting of the plant by the waves. Wolffia is the tiniest flowering plant, the whole plant sometimes in size only half the diameter of a pinhead. By the very rapid vegetative multiplication of some species, ponds are often completely covered with a green coating, and these plants may then become of economic importance. Lemna and Spirodela are often grown in aquaria. Order 18. Farinosae 33. Bromeliaceae (from the genus Bromelia, in honor of Olaus Bromel, a Swedish botanist). Pineapple Family. Fig. 10. Herbs or subshrubs, mostly epiphytic: leaves usually basal, alternate, linear, trough-like, sheathing at the base, mostly stiff and spiny-serrate, usually covered in part or all over with peltate scale-like hairs or glands: flowers in spikes, racemes, panicles or heads, often in the axils of imbricated, highly colored, bracts, usually bisexual, regular, epigynous or hypogynous; perianth of 6 parts, definitely differentiated into calyx and corolla; parts free or united; stamens 6, often borne on the perianth; anthers introse; ovary inferior or superior, 3-celled; ovules many; style 1; stigmas 3: fruit a berry or capsule, more or less surrounded by the persistent perianth; seeds albuminous. The family has 40 genera and about 900 species, almost exclusively of tropical and subtropical America. Tillandsia usneoides reaches Florida and Texas. Tillandsia is the largest genus with 120 species. The family is closely related to the Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. The peculiar stiff leaves, the conspicuous bracts, the herbaceous calyx, the mealy endosperm, and, in general, the epiphytic habit, are distinctive. There are few families more easily recognized than this. The most important economic species is the pineapple (Ananas sativus), the fruit of which is an important article of commerce. Its unripe juice is used as a vermifuge and diuretic. Florida or Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides) is used in the preparation of a stiptic ointment. It is also used to stuff mattresses, under the name of vegetable hair. Billbergia tinctoria is the source of a dye. The leaves of pineapple yield a beautiful fiber. Bromelia Pinguin is a vermifuge employed in the West Indies. There are several genera grown in America, all for ornamental purposes except the pineapple. Among these are: Aechmea; Ananas (Pineapple); Billbergia; Bromelia (Pinguin of Jamaica, Wild Pine); Cryptanthus; Dyckia; Guzmannia; Nidularium; Pitcairnia; Tillandsia (Spanish Moss, Florida Moss, Long Moss); Vriesia. 34. Commelinaceae (from the genus Commelina dedicated to J. and G. Commelin, Dutch botanists of the early 18th century). Spiderwort Family. Fig. 10. Herbs with knotty stems, and somewhat sheathing, alternate, flat or channeled, cauline leaves: flowers usually bisexual, almost or quite regular, hypogynous; perianth of 6 parts, in 2 series, differentiated into a green calyx and colored corolla; the petals separate or united into a tube, mostly quickly disappearing, and dissolving into a viscid liquid; stamens 6, or reduced to 3, with or without staminodia; some anthers often sterile and altered; the filaments usually provided with characteristic long hairs; ovary superior, 2-3-celled, few-seeded; style 1; stigma usually captitate: fruit a capsule. Twenty-five genera and about 300 species occur, widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics. Eleven species reach the northeastern United States. The largest genus is Commelina, with 88 species. The family is not closely related to any other. The general habit, the complete differentiation of the perianth into calyx and corolla, the slight irregularity of the flower, the peculiar stamen-hairs, and the transformed anthers, are together distinctive. The peculiar deliquescent character of the petals in many genera is of interest. The rhizomes of several species of Commelina contain starch, besides the mucilage, and are eaten. The rhizome of C. Rumphii is an emmenagogue. The tubers of Aneilema medicum are used in China for coughs and lung diseases. A decoction of Cyanotis axillaris is used by the Indians for dropsy. The family is most important from the point of view of ornamental use. Several genera are grown in America, all for ornament. Among these are: Aneilema; Cochliostema; Commelina (Day Flower); Dichorisandra; Tradescantia (Spider-wort, Wandering Jew); Zebrina (Wandering Jew). 35. Pontederiaceae (from the genus Pontederia, named in honor of Pontedera, professor at Padua in the 18th century). Pickerel-weed Family. Fig. 11. Upright or floating, fleshy, water- or swamp-plants: leaves alternate; petioles sheathing; blade cordate, oval, or orbicular, or reduced to the linear flattened petiole: flowers not bracted, bisexual, irregular, hypogynous; perianth of 6 similar parts, in 2 whorls, more or less connate, persistent; stamens 3 or 6, rarely 1, inserted unequally on the perianth-tube; anthers introse; ovary superior, 3-celled and ovules many, or 1-celled and 1-seeded; style 1; stigmas 3: fruit a capsule, or an achene enveloped by the fleshy persistent base of the perianth; embryo as long as the endosperm. The family contains 6 genera and about 20 species, of which 9 belong to the genus Heteranthera, and about 5 to Eichhornia. They are distributed in the swamps of the warmer parts of the earth, except Europe. The family is most closely related to the Liliaceae, from which it differs in the irregular flowers, in the sympodial method of growth, in anatomical characters, and principally in the abundant mealy endosperm. A decoction of the root of Monocharia vaginalis of the Far East is used for liver and stomach complaints; the root is chewed for toothache; pulverized and mixed with sugar it is used for asthma; the leaves bruised and mixed with milk are used for cholera; and the shoots are edible. Eichhornia crassipes is a floating fleshy plant with beautiful flowers. It has become so abundant in Florida as to interfere seriously with steamboat navigation in the rivers. The large violet flowers of both Eichhornia and Pontederia are valued in cultivation for water-gardens. Two genera are frequent in cultivation: Eichhornia (Water Hyacinth), from South America; and Pontederia (Pickerel-weed), native. Order 19. Liliflorae 36. Juncaceae (from the genus Juncus, classical name, derived from jungere, to join). Rush Family. Fig. 11. Rush-like or grass-like herbs or shrubs: flowers numerous, very small, bisexual, regular, hypogynous; perianth of 6 similar, separate parts, greenish or brownish, chaffy; stamens 3 or 6 in 2 whorls; carpels 3; ovary 1- or 3-celled; ovules 3 to many; stigmas 3: fruit a capsule; seeds mostly very small, albuminous, anatropous. Juncacese has 7 genera and about 175 species, of which 160 belong to the genus Juncus, widely distributed in temperate and cold regions, both north and south, but rare in the tropics. The family is closely related to the Liliaceae, from which it differs only in the rush- or grass-like habit and scarious perianth. Fossil species are known. The leaves are sheathing and the blades are either flat, or tubular and nodulose. Distichia of the Andes is densely heath-like or moss-like. The stems and leaves of many species are used for binding, or for weaving into mats. Light hats are made from the pith of certain species in India and China. The pith is also used for candlewicks. In cultivation in America are 2 genera for water-gardens: Juncus; Prionium, woody. Xanthorrhoea is transferred to the Liliaceae. 37. Liliaceae (from the genus Lilium, classical Latin name). Lily Family. Fig. 11. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, usually with rootstocks or bulbs, sometimes climbing: leaves alternate, rarely with petiole and blade: flowers bisexual, rarely unisexual, regular, hypogynous, rarely epigynous, not subtended by spathes; perianth petaloid, of 6 similar parts, in 2 series, the parts separate or connate, rarely differentiated into a green calyx and colored corolla; stamens 6, rarely fewer, hypogynous, or borne upon the perianth; carpels 3, rarely more or fewer, united, rarely free; ovary usually 3-celled; ovules 1 to many in each cell; styles and stigmas 1-3: fruit a capsule or berry. There are about 200 genera and 2,000 species, distributed in all parts of the world. The large genera are Smilax with 200 species, Allium with 250 species, Asparagus with 100 species. Aloe with 85 species and Scilla with 80 species. The Liliaceae, taken in the broader sense, as is done by Bentham & Hooker, and by Engler, is an easily recognized group except in unusual cases. The regular, 6-parted perianth, 6 stamens, and 3-celled superior ovary are distinctive. The family has been divided by Engler into 11 tribes. The Liliaceae furnishes a host of cultivated plants. The following plants, among others, have been or are used in medicine: Amianthium muscaetoxicum of North America as a narcotic and a fly poison; various species of Uvularia of North America as a gargle and for rattlesnake bites; the root of Polygonatum sp. in Europe as a vulnery, and the berries as an emetic and purgative; the berries of Smilacina racemosa of North America as a tonic; the root of Convallaria majalis of Europe as a purgative; the leaves of Streptopus amplexicaulis of North America as a gargle; the roots of Ruscus of Europe as a diuretic and emmenagogue; the roots of Smilax sp. of the tropics (the sarsaparillas of commerce) as a tonic and diuretic; the roots of Asparagus officinalis in Europe as an aperient, the berries as a diuretic and aphrodisiac, and the shoots as a sedative and cardiac; the roots of Cordyline of the southern tropics for dysentery; the flowers of C. deflexa as an emmenagogue; the resin from Xanthorhaea hastilis (Botany Bay gum, with a fragrance like benzoin) in Australia for throat troubles; the resin of X. australis (grass tree gum, earth shellac, or nut pitch) for various purposes; the tubers of Ophiopogon japonicus (serpent's beard) in China and Japan for abdominal troubles; the bulbs of Gagea of Europe as an emetic; the flowers of Hemerocallis of Europe as a cordial; the leaves of species of Aloes of the Old World as a tonic, purgative, and emmenagogue (A. Perryi is Socotrine aloes, A. vera is Barbadoes aloes, and A. spicata is Cape aloes); the bulb of Urginea maritima (squills) of the Mediterranean as a diuretic, expectorant, and emetic: Allium sp. as a vermifuge and carminative; the bulbs of Hyacinthus, Muscari, and Ornithogalum of Europe as purgatives and diuretics; Ornithogalum altissimum of the Cape as a remedy for asthma and catarrh; Anthericum and Asphodelus as diuretics and emmenagogues; Tulbaghia of the Cape as a vermifuge and for phthisis; the poisonous root of Veratrum album (white hellebore) of Europe as a violent purge and emetic, and to exterminate vermin; V. nigrum (black h.) of Europe, and V. viride (green h.) of the United States, occasionally, for the same purpose; Schoenocaulon officinalis (cavadilla or sabadilla) of Mexico for vermin and as a vermifuge; the narcotic, poisonous root and seeds of Colchicum officinale of Europe as a cathartic, emetic, and sedative; and Helonias bullata of North America as a vermifuge. The roots of Gloriosa, also, are poisonous. Dracaena Draco, the dragon tree of the Canaries and Teneriffe, famous for the extreme age and size of the trees, was superstitiously revered by the ancients. The red resinous astringent exudation of these plants was called dragon's blood. The following have been used for food: Bulbs of Camassia esculenta, western United States; bulbs and leaves of Allium sp. (onion, leek, eschalot or shallot, rochambole); shoots of Polygonatum, Europe, United States; shoots of Asparagus officinalis; roots of Cordyline sp., in South Sea Islands, and there called ti. The seeds of Ruscus are a substitute for coffee. A few have been used for other purposes: Roots of Yucca for soap; fibers of New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) for fabrics; and the fragrant root of Dianella nemorosa for incense. For ornament, great numbers of genera and species are in cultivation. Very many genera are in cultivation, some common, for ornamental purposes unless otherwise stated. Among these are Agapanthus (African Lily, Lily-of-the-Nile); Aletris (Colic Root), native; Allium (Onion, Chives, Cives, Garlic, Leek, Shallot), ornament and food; Asphodeline (True Asphodel, King's Spear): Asphodelus (Branching Asphodel); Bessera (Mexican Coral Drops); Brevoortia (Floral Fire-Cracker); Brodiaea; Calochortus (Star Tulip, Globe Flower, Mariposa Lily, Butterfly Tulip); Camassia (Camass); Chionodoxa (Glory-of-the-Snow); Chlorogalum (Soap Plant, Amole); Clintonia, native; Colchicum (Meadow Saffron, Autumn Crocus); Cordyline (Dracaena); Dasylirion; Dracaena (Dragon Tree); Erythronium (Dog’s-tooth Violet, Adder’s Tongue); Eucomis (Royal Crown, Pineapple Flower); Fritillaria (Crown Imperial, Black Lily, Checkered Lily); Funkia (Day Lily, Plantain Lily); Galtonia (Giant Summer Hyacinth); Gasteria; Gloriosa (Climbing Lily); Haworthia; Helonias (Swamp Pink, Stud Pink); Hemerocallis (Yellow Day Lily, Lemon Lily); Hyacinthus (Hyacinth); Kniphofia (Red-hot-poker Plant, Torch Lily, Flame Flower); Lachenalia (Cape Cowslip); Lapageria (Chilean Bell flower); Leucocrinum (Sand Lily) ; Lilium (Lily, Easter Lily, Madonna Lily, Tiger Lily, Japan Lily, Turk's-cap Lily); Littonia (Climbing Lily); Maianthemum (False Lily-of-the-Valley, Two-leaved False Solomon's Seal), native; Medeola (Indian Cucumber Root), native; Melanthium (Bunch Flower); Milla (Mexican Star, Mexican Star of Bethlehem, Frost Flower, Floating Star); Muscari (Grape Hyacinth, Musk Hyacinth, Feathered Hyacinth); Narthecium (Bog Asphodel) ; Molina; Nothoscordum (Yellow False Garlic, Streaked-leaved Garlic): Oakesia (Wild Oats), native; Ornithogalum (Star of Bethlehem); Paradisea (St. Bruno's Lily, St. Bernard's Lily); Paris (Herb Paris, Love Apple, True Love); Phormium (New Zealand Flax); Polygonatum (Solomon's Seal); Ruscus (Butcher's Broom); Sansevieria (Bow-string Hemp); Scilla (Squill, Wild Hyacinth, Bluebell, Harebell, Spanish Jacinth, Sea Onion, Starry Hyacinth, Cuban Lily, Hyacinth of Peru, Peruvian Jacinth); Semele (Climbing Butcher's Broom); Smilacina (False Solomon's Seal), native; Smilax; Streptopus (Twisted Stalk), native; Tricyrtis (Toad Lily); Trillium (Wake-Robin, Birthroot, Bethroot, White Wood Lily, Ground Lily), native; Triteleia (Spring Star-Flower); Tulipa (Tulip); Urginea (Sea Onion, Squills); Uvularia (Bell-wort, Wild Oats), native; Veratrum (False Hellebore, White Hellebore, Green Hellebore, Black Hellebore, Indian Poke); Xanthorrhoea (Grass Tree, Grass Gum, Black Boy); Xerophyllum (Turkey's Beard); Yucca (Spanish Bayonet, Adam's Needle, Bear Grass, Silk Grass); Zygadenus (Fly-poison). 38. Amaryllidaceae (from the genus Amaryllis named for a nymph celebrated by Virgil). Amaryllis Family. Fig. 11. Caulescent or acaulescent herbs, bulbous- or fibrous-rooted: leaves alternate, elongated, entire: flowers bisexual, regular or irregular, epigynous, usually borne singly or in clusters from a spathe-like bract; perianth of 6 similar parts in 2 series, usually connate below into a tube and sometimes with a tubular or cup-shaped crown in the throat; stamens 6, some occasionally staminodial; anthers introrse; ovary inferior, 3-celled; ovules numerous, anatropous; style 1; stigmas 1-3: fruit a capsule, rarely a berry; seeds albuminous. There are 71 genera and about 800 species, widely distributed but most abundant in the steppe regions of the tropics and subtropics. Five species are found in the northeastern United States. The largest genera are Crinum with 60 species, and Hypoxis; and Hippeastrum with 50 species each. The family is most closely related to the Liliaceae; less closely to the Iridaceae. The 6-parted perianth. 6 stamens with introrse anthers, and inferior 3-celled ovary, are together distinctive. The bulbs or rootstocks of some species have been used in medicine. Those of Narcissus Pseudo-Narcissus and Leucoium vernum are vigorous emetics. Those of Crinum zeylanicum of the Moluccas, Amaryllis Belladonna, of the Cape of Good Hope, and Buphane toxicaría, of South Africa are violent poisons. The latter is used by the Kafirs to poison their arrows. In South America the farinaceous tubers of the Alstroemeriae are eaten. The most important plants are the Yuccas. From the terminal bud of these, a sugary liquid is obtained which by the Mexicans is made into a fermented drink, called pulque; when distilled this drink is called mescal. The juice of the leaves has been used for syphilis, scrofula, and cancers. The leaf-fibers yield vegetable silk or sisal hemp, and are also made into paper. Razor-strops and cork are made from the pith. The flowers are sometimes boiled and eaten. Forty or more genera are in cultivation in America, as ornamental plants in greenhouse and garden. Among these are: Agave (Century Plant, Sisal Hemp, Pulque Plant); Alstroemeria; Amaryllis (Belladonna Lily); Beschorneria; Bomarea; Bravoa (Mexican Twin Flower); Cooperia (Evening Star, Giant Fairy Lily); Crinum (St. John's Lily, Florida Swamp Lily) ; Eucharis (Amazon Lily, Star of Bethlehem); Eurycles (Brisbane Lily); Fureraea; Galanthus (Snowdrop); Griffinia (Blue Amaryllis); Haemanthus (Blood Lily); Hippeastrum (Amaryllis, Lily-of-the-Palace, Barbadoes Lily) ; Hymenocallis (Spider Lily, Sea Daffodil); Hypoxis (Star Grass), native; Leucoium (Snowflake): Lycoris (Golden Spider Lily); Narcissus (Narcissus, Jonquil, Daffodil, Pheasant's Eye); Nerine (Guernsey Lily); Pancratium (Spider Lily, Spirit Lily); Polianthes (Tuberose); Sprekelia (Jacobœan Lily) ; Tecophilaea (Chilean Crocus) ; Vallota (Scarborough Lily) ; Zephyranthes (Zephyr Flower, Fairy Lily, Atamasco Lily). 39. Taccaceae (from the genus Tacca, from the Malay name). Tacca Family. Fig. 12. Herbaceous plants: leaves large, entire, or commonly pinnatifid or bipinnatifid, all basal: flowers saucer- or urn-shaped, bisexual, regular, epigynous; perianth of 6 nearly separate similar parts in 2 series; stamens 6, borne on the base of the perianth ; filaments queerly broadened and cucullate; ovary inferior, 1-celled, or incompletely 3- celled; ovules numerous; placentae parietal; style umbrella-like, the terminal disk variously lobed, and bearing the peculiar stigmatic pores beneath: fruit a capsule or berry; seed albuminous. Taccaceae has 2 genera and 10 species, inhabitants of the tropics of both hemispheres, mostly of the Malay archipelago. A very distinct family of doubtful relationship, even suggesting several Dicotyledonous families, but probably close to the Dioscoriaceae and Amaryllidaceae. The acaulescent habit, the epigynous bisexual flowers, the six queer stamens, and the 1-celled, many-ovuled ovary, are together distinctive. Several species of Tacca, e. g., T. pinnatifida, possess tubers from which a starchy meal, called arrowroot, is made in the East. Straw hats are made from the stems of Tacca by the Tahitians. Tacca pinnatifida and T. cristata are cultivated sparingly in America. 40. Dioscoreaceae (from the genus Dioscorea, named in honor of Dioscorides). Yam Family. Fig. 12. Climbing or twining herbs or shrubs: leaves alternate, mostly arrowhead-shaped: flowers bisexual or unisexual, regular, small, and inconspicuous; perianth of 6 similar parts, in 2 series; stamens usually 6, or the 3 inner staminodia; ovary inferior, 3-celled, rarely 1- celled; placentae axile or parietal; ovules 2 in each cell, superposed, anatropous; stigmas 3, or each 2-parted: fruit a capsule or berry; seed albuminous. Nine genera and about 170 species, of which 150 belong to the genus Dioscorea, are distributed very generally in the tropics and in the subtropics, and extend sparingly into the north temperate zone. They are most abundant in South America and the West Indies. One species reaches north to southern New England. The family is related to the Amaryllidaceae and Liliaceae. The climbing habit, peculiar leaves, definite stamens, inferior 3-celled ovary, and 2 albuminous seeds are distinctive. Most Dioscoriaceae spring from a tuberous base, which is sometimes very large and conspicuous. Odd tubers are borne in the leaf-axils of species of Dioscorea and Rajania. The tuberous root of Dioscorea Batatas yields the yams of eastern commerce, a very important article of food in the Far East. Those of several other species, including our own native D. villosa, are also cultivated in various parts of the tropics. The leaves of some species are used in intermittent fevers. The tubers of Tamus communis were formerly employed as a purgative, and were also applied to bruises, hence the name "beaten woman's herb." The shoots are eaten like asparagus. Two genera are in cultivation in the United States, mostly in the South: Dioscorea (Yam, Chinese Potato, Cinnamon Vine, Air Potato); Testudinaria (Hottentot's Bread, Tortoise Plant, Elephant's Foot), rarely grown. 41. Iridaceae (from the genus Iris, the rainbow). Iris Family. Fig. 12. Herbs or sub-shrubs with fibrous roots or often tuberous rootstocks (corns): leaves mostly basal, equitant, linear: flowers usually showy, bisexual, regular or irregular, epigynous, each with 2 spathe-like bracts; perianth of 6 petaloid parts in 2 series, usually unlike, generally connate into a tube; stamens 3, the inner whorl wanting, separate or connate; anthers extrorse; ovary inferior, 3-celled, rarely 1-celled; ovules few to many, anatropous; style 1; stigmas 3: fruit a capsule; seeds albuminous. The iris family has 57 genera and about 1,000 species of wide distribution. The two main centers are the Cape of Good Hope and subtropical America. The family is not plainly related to any other, perhaps most closely to the Amaryllidaceae. The ensiform equitant leaves, the 6-parted showy perianth, the 3 extrorse stamens, and the inferior 3-celled ovary, are together characteristic. The rootstocks of many Iridaceae are purgative and diuretic, e. g., Iris florentina, I. germanica, I. pallida, and I. versicolor. The rootstock of I. florentina is fragrant and used for sachet perfume and tooth-powder (orris root). I. Pseudacorus and I. versicolor have been used for dropsy and diarrhea. I. foetidissima was an ancient remedy for scrofula and hysteria. The stigmas of Crocus sativus have been renowned since earliest times as an emmenagogue; they are deep orange in color, and used also in dyeing and as a condiment. Iris-green of the painters was prepared by treating violet iris flowers with lime. The seeds of I. Pseudacorus have been used as a substitute for coffee. The rootstocks of Homeria collina of South Africa are very poisonous. The family contains many well-known ornamental plants. In America, many genera are in cultivation, all for ornamental purposes. Among these are: Belamcanda (Blackberry Lily, Leopold Flower); Crocus; Freesia; Gladiolus; Hermodactylus (Snake's-head Iris); Iris (Fleur-de-lis, Iris, Gladwin); Ixia; Moraea (Wedding Iris); Schizostylis (Crimson Flag); Sisyrinchium (Blue- eyed Grass, Satin Flower, Rush Lily); Sparaxis (Wand Flower); Tigridia (Tiger Flower, Shell Flower); Tritonia (Blazing Star). Order 20. Scitamineae 42. Musaceae (from the genus Musa, the Arabic name). Banana Family. Fig. 12. Large, semi-ligneous herbs, the stout stem enveloped at base by the sheathing petioles, unbranched: leaves alternate entire, convolute, pinnately parallel-veined: flowers bisexual, or unisexual, irregular, epigynous, borne in the axil of a bract in spikes with subtending spathes; nectaries ovarian; perianth of 6 parts, in 2 series, the parts unequal in size and shape, separate or variously united; stamens 6, 5 fertile and 1 staminodium; ovary inferior, 3-celled; ovules solitary and basal, or numerous and axile, anatropous; style 1; stigmas usually 3: fruit fleshy and pulpy or drupaceous, indehiscent, dehiscent or separating into fruitlets; seeds with perisperm; embryo straight. Six genera and about 60 species occur, 30 of which belong to the genus Heliconia and 20 to Musa, of general tropical distribution. Fossil species are known. The family is related to the Marantaceae, Zingiberaceae and Cannaceae; with the last it is often united. These families all have irregular flowers of the same type, and inferior ovaries; but the Musaceae differ in their slightly differentiated calyx and corolla, in the 5 fertile stamens, and in the absence of aromatic principles. The banana (Musa paradisiaca, M. sapientum, etc.) is the most important economic plant, the fruit of which is widely used for food. The pith of the stem, top of the floral spike, and also the shoots, are eaten as vegetables. The fibers from the petioles of Musa textilis are made into thread and fabrics. The leaves are used to thatch huts. The traveler's tree (Ravenala madagascariensis) holds sufficient water at the leaf bases to serve for drink. The water is obtained by boring the sheath. The seeds of this tree are eaten. Four genera are in cultivation in the South and in conservatories, for ornament; and one also, Musa, for the fruit: Heliconia (Balisier, Wild Plantain); Musa (Banana, Plantain Tree, Chumpa, Adam's Fig); Ravenala (Traveler's Tree); Strelitzia (Bird of Paradise Flower). 43. Zingiberaceae (from the genus Zingiber, the Indian name). Ginger Family. Fig. 12. Herbs with creeping or tuberous rhizomes, rarely with fibrous roots: leaves basal or cauline, alternate, sheathing; blade with ligule at top of petiole, linear or elliptic, the pinnately parallel veins strongly ascending: flowers bisexual, irregular, epigynous; perianth of 6 parts, in 2 series, differentiated into a tubular 3-toothed or spathiform somewhat herbaceous calyx, and a tubular unequally 3-lobed corolla; 1 stamen only is fertile, opposite this is a large petaloid staminodium, and there are sometimes other smaller ones; ovary inferior, 3-celled, rarely 1-celled; ovules many in each cell; style 1; stigma usually 1 : fruit a capsule; seed with large perisperm, small endosperm, and straight embryo. There are 24 genera and about 270 species, distributed in the tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere. Only 2 genera are in America. The largest genera are Amomum, with 50 species, and Alpinia, with 40 species. The family is related to the Musaceae, Marantaceae and Cannaceae, but differs in the ligule, the aromatic oil, the sharp differentiation of the perianth, the single stamen, and the large single staminodium. To the spicy aromatic flavor of the rhizomes and fruits the family owes its useful qualities. Ginger is from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, cultivated from India. Cardamon fruits are from Elettaria Cardamomum of farther India. Curcuma or turmeric is from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa, cultivated from southeast Asia. This is used in medicine, and for flavoring pickles. In it is a yellow dye. The seeds of Amomum Melegueta of west Africa are the grains of paradise of commerce. Galangal, used in perfumery, is the rootstock of Alpinia Galanga of the East Indies. Several genera are in cultivation in America, mostly grown for ornamental purposes in greenhouses and principally in the South. Among these are: Alpinia (Shell Flower); Amomum; Curcuma (Curcuma, Turmeric); Elettaria (commercial Cardamon seeds); Hedychium (Butterfly Lily, Ginger Lily, Garland Lily); Kaempferia; Zingiber (Ginger). 44. Cannaceae (from the genus Canna, the origin of the name not clear). Canna Family. Fig. 13. Similar to the Marantaceae in all but the following structural details: no joint nor ligule at summit of petiole; ovules many in each cell of the ovary; embryo straight. This family contains a single genus and 25-50 species of tropical and subtropical America. The starchy rhizome of C. edulis is grown and eaten in the West Indies and Australia. The arrowroot starch of the English and French is derived from C. coccínea of the West Indies and South America. The cannas are popular ornamental garden plants. 45. Marantaceae (from the genus Maranta, named for Maranti, a Venetian botanist and physician of the 16th century). Arrowroot Family. Fig. 13. Herbs with rhizomes: leaves mostly basal, with an articulation at the summit of the petiole; blade linear to oval, pinnately parallel-veined: inflorescence usually surrounded by spathe-like bracts; flowers bisexual, irregular, epigynous; perianth of 6 parts, plainly differentiated into calyx and corolla, the latter somewhat irregular; one stamen of the inner set fertile, petaloid, with lateral anther, the two others of the inner whorl transformed into enlarged staminodia; usually 1 or 2 of the outer whorl also present as petaloid staminodia; ovary inferior, 3-celled, rarely 1-2-celled; ovule 1 in each cell; style flat and twisted or lobed: fruit a capsule or berry; seeds with perisperm, and aril; embryo curved. Marantaceae has 12 genera and about 160 species, of damp situations in the tropics, mostly American. The largest genus is Calathea with 60 species. The family is related to the Cannaceae, Zingiberaceae, and Musaceae. The joint at the summit of the petiole, the type of stamen-irregularity, the 1-seeded cells of the ovary, and the curved embryo are distinctive. The rhizome of Maranta arundinacea is cultivated in tropical America, and furnishes the maranta arrowroot of commerce; rhizomes of some other species are eaten. Many species are ornamental, mostly for conservatory. Five or 6 genera are in cultivation in America, as Calathea (Rattlesnake Plant); Maranta; Phrynium; Stromanthe; Thalia. Order 21. MlCROSPERMAE 46. Orchidaceae (from the genus Orchis, an ancient name of these plants). Orchid Family. Fig. 13. Herbaceous plants of very diverse habit and structure; terrestrial, epiphytic or saprophytic, sometimes climbing; the terrestrial with fibrous roots or with thickened tuber-like roots, the epiphytic often with the base of the leaf and adjoining stem swollen, forming a pseudobulb; the saprophytic without chlorophyll; the epiphytic often with aerial hanging roots are provided with a water-absorbing layer (velamen): leaves alternate, succulent, coriaceous or membranous, linear to oval: flowers bisexual, rarely unisexual, irregular, epigynous; perianth of 6 parts, in 2 series, usually all petaloid; one petal larger, forming the lip (labellum); stamens originally 6, but all except 1 or 2 wanting, or reduced to staminodia, united with the pistil; pollen-grains compound, granular, or aggregated into masses (pollinia) which are either free in the anther or attached by a stalk to a viscid apical or stigmatic gland; carpels 3; ovary inferior, 1- or 3-celled; ovules very numerous; style united with the stamens to form the column; stigma in the front of the column, or on a projecting lobe: fruit a capsule; seeds very minute. This is an important family of more than 400 genera and between 6,000 and 10,000 species. Orchids are very widely distributed, except in the arctics, but are most numerous in the tropics. Those of temperate regions are mainly terrestrial; those in the tropics commonly epiphytic. The large genera are Epidendrum, 500 species; Habenaria, Dendrobium, Bulbophyllum, and Oncidium, 200-600 species each; Masdevallia, Odontoglossum, and Maxillaria, each 100 or more species. From the standpoint of the intricate and very special mechanisms evolved in order to insure cross-pollination, the orchids are the most wonderful of our insect-pollinated plants, for a detailed account see Darwin's "Fertilization of Orchids," or Kerner and Oliver's "Natural History of Plants." In general, the insect visiting the showy flower for the honey comes in contact with the sticky gland above the stigma, thereby pulling it out, along with the attached pollen masses. While the insect is going to another flower, the pollen masses dry and bend down until they are in position to strike the viscid stigma, which tears away and retains some of the pollen. The method of pollination in Cypripedium is fundamentally different. Some orchids (e.g., Catasetum) possess a sensitive explosive mechanism that forcibly ejects the pollen mass, often to the distance of 2 or 3 feet. The minute seeds of the orchids are well adapted to be disseminated by the wind and find lodgment in the crevices of the bark of trees and on other supports. Orchids are divided into large groups as follows: Group I. Diandrae. The two lateral stamens of the inner whorl fertile, the dorsal of the outer whorl staminodial or fruitful, the others absent. Cypripedium, Selenipedium, Paphiopedilum, and others. Group II. Monandrae. The dorsal stamen of the outer whorl fruitful, all the others wanting. By far the majority of the species belong here. Subgroup I. Pollinia connected by caudicles with a gland at base of anther near stigma. Subgroup 2. Pollen without caudicles or with these attached to a gland at apex of anther. The family is very distinct and easily distinguished. Its only near relatives are the Burmanniaceae. The peculiar structure of the stamens and pistil, together with the minute exalbuminous seeds are distinctive. The Orchidaceae is perhaps the most important family from the standpoint of ornamental gardening. To grow these singular, fantastic, showy, and often sweet-scented flowers has in recent years become almost a craze. It is estimated that, whereas Linnaeus knew but a dozen exotic orchids, at the present day more than 2,500 are known to English horticulturists. Plants in the family useful for other purposes are few. The most important is vanilla, derived from the capsule of Vanilla planifolia of Mexico, and now widely cultivated in the tropics. Faham (Angraecum fragrans of Bourbon) has a fragrant, bitter-almond-like taste: the leaves are used for indigestion and tuberculosis, and are known as Bourbon tea. Salep is derived from the roots of various terrestrial orchids of the Mediterranean region. The roots of helleborine (Epipactis latifolia) are used for rheumatism. The root of Spiranthes diuretica of Chile is renowned as a diuretic. The flowers of Habenaria conopsea are used for dysentery. Spiranthes autumnalis and Habenaria bifolia are said to be aphrodisiac. The roots of Cypripedium parviflorum var. pubescens are frequently used in America as a substitute for valerian. CLASS II. DICOTYLEDONEAE Sub-class 1. Archichlamydeae (Choripetalae and Apetalae) Order 22. Verticillales 47. Casuarinaceae (from the genus Casuarina, derived from the resemblance of the branches to the feathers of the bird cassowary). Casuarina Family. Fig. 14. Shrubs, or much-branched trees, with the habit of the horse-tail (Equisetum) or Ephedra: branches whorled, jointed, striate: leaves replaced by striate, many-toothed sheaths: flowers monoecious or dioecious, the staminate in spikes, the pistillate in heads; perianth of the staminate flower of 2, rarely 1, bract-like parts; stamen 1; perianth of the pistillate flower 0; ovary 1-celled, rarely 2-celled, 2-4-ovuled; stigmas 2: fruit dry, often samaroid, inclosed by the woody valve-like bracts; seeds 2, or 3-4, orthotropous, ascending. A single genus containing about 20 species occurs in Australia and the neighboring islands, extending to Madagascar and to southeast Asia. The family is very distinct and its relationships are in doubt. It is placed here in the system because of the simple flowers. The peculiar habit, reduced staminate flowers, and peculiar fruit are characteristic. The wood of Casuarina equisetifolia is very hard, and called ironwood. It is used in ship-building, and by the Indians for war-clubs; the powdered bark is used to dress wounds, or for diarrhea. A brown dye is obtained from the same plant. A few species of Casuarina (Beefwood, She Oak) are cultivated in the South for timber and ornament. Order 23. Piperales 48. Saururaceae (from the genus Saururus, meaning lizard's tail, in allusion to the long slender spike). Lizard's-Tail, Family. Fig. 14. Herbs: leaves alternate, large and broad: flowers bisexual, regular, in a long, dense spike; perianth 0; stamens 6 or fewer, hypogynous or united with the pistil; carpels 3-4, separate, or united in to a 3-4-celled ovary; ovules 2 to several, parietal; stigmas as many as the carpels: fruit of follicles, or a lobed berry. Three genera and about 4 species are found in temperate or subtropical Asia and North America. The family is related to the Piperaceae, with which it is frequently united. From that family it differs in having several carpels in each flower and several parietal ovules for each carpel. Saururus cernuus (lizard's tail), a native herb, is in the trade as a garden plant for wet soil. 49. Piperaceae (from the genus Piper, an ancient name of pepper). Pepper Family. Fig. 14. Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees: leaves alternate, rarely opposite or whorled: flowers in dense spikes, bisexual, or unisexual, regular; perianth 0; stamens 1-10; ovary 1-celled; ovule 1, basal; stigmas 1-4, rarely more, sessile: fruit a dry or fleshy berry. There are 9 genera and' about 1,025 species, confined to the tropics. The largest genera are Piper with 600 species and Peperomia with 400 species. The family is related to the Saururaceae, with which it is often united; otherwise it stands alone as a distinct type, the systematic position of which is uncertain. The spicate inflorescence, naked flowers, and 1-celled, 1-seeded ovary are distinctive. The unripe fruit of Piper nigrum (Java, etc.) yields black pepper. The ripe fruit of the same plant yields white pepper. Long pepper is the whole spike of P. longum of India. The drug cubebs is obtained from P. Cubeba. Betel consists of the leaves of P. Betle, which in India are mixed with the areca nut and masticated. From an extraction of the roots of P. methysticum (ava, or kava-kava), mixed with the milk of coconuts, an intoxicating drink is made in the Pacific Islands. Some species of Peperomia are eaten as salads; others chewed as betel. Some genera are in cultivation in America as greenhouse foliage plants: Peperomia, 10 or more species; Piper (Pepper, Black Pepper, Japanese Pepper). 50. Chloranthaceae (from the genus Chloranthus, signifying green flowers). Chloranthus Family. Fig. 14. Herbs, shrubs or trees: leaves opposite: flowers bisexual or unisexual, regular, very small, subtended by bracts, and mostly borne in spikes; perianth 0; stamens in the bisexual flowers 1-3, united with each other and with the ovary; in the staminate inflorescence inserted on a common axis and forming a spike; carpels 1, with 1 pendent ovule; stigma sessile: fruit drupaceous. Three genera and about 35 species occur, in tropical America, East Asia, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. The family is related to the Piperaceae and Saururaceae. The opposite leaves, the few stamens, which are often unilaterally united with the 1-celled ovary, and the suspended ovule, are peculiar. The roots of Chloranthus officinalis have a camphor-like odor, and are used in the East as a febrifuge. One species of Chloranthus is grown in greenhouses for foliage and berries. Order 24. Salicales 51. Salicaceae(from the genus Salix, the classical Latin name). Willow Family. Fig. 15. Shrubs or trees, creeping in the arctics: leaves alternate, simple: flowers dioecious, both sexes in catkins, 1 flower to each scale; perianth 0; disk present, cup-shaped or finger-like; stamens 2-many, separate or united; ovary often pedicelled, 1-celled: placentae 2, parietal; ovules numerous; stigmas 2, often each 2-lobed: fruit a capsule; seeds with a basal tuft of long hairs. Salicaceae has 2 genera and about 180 species, of which 160 belong to the genus Salix; inhabitants of the north temperate and arctic zones, a few in the tropics and in South Africa. The family is not definitely related to any other family, though possibly to the Tamaricaceae. The flowers of both sexes in catkins, the glandular disk, and the dehiscent many-seeded capsule with comose seeds, are distinctive. The bark of many species has been used for intermittent fevers and for tanning leather. A yellow dye occurs in the bark of Populus alba and P. tremula, also in Salix alba, S. daphnoides, and others. The resinous buds of P. balsamifera, or tacamahac, furnish American balm of Gilead. The staminate catkins of S. aegyptiaca are odoriferous and are used in the East in medicinal waters, as a cordial, and as a sudorific. Willow and poplar wood is soft and light. The twigs of several species of Salix are universally used in basket-making. The two genera are in cultivation in America, as ornamental plants and for shelter-belts and basket-work and sometimes for timber: Populus (Poplar, Aspen, Tacamahac, Balm of Gilead [not the original], Cottonwood, Abele); and Salix (Willow, Osier). Order 25. Myricales 52. Myricaceae (from the genus Myrica, the ancient name of the Tamarisk). Sweet Gale Family. Fig. 15. Shrubs or trees: leaves alternate, usually simple, resinous: flowers monoecious or dioecious, in catkins or spikes, single for each bract; perianth 0; stamens 4-6, or 16, in the axil of the bract (scale); ovary 1-celled, 1-ovuled; stigmas 2: fruit a drupe, usually slightly horned by union with the bracteoles; seed solitary, orthotropous, basal. One genus with about 35 species is generally distributed over the more temperate parts of the earth. The Myricaceae are related to the other amentiferous families, e.g., Juglandaceae, Fagaceae and Betulaceae. The indehiscent, 1-seeded fruit, basal seeds, two carpels, absence of perianth, and simple leaves are characteristic of the family. Myrica Gale and other species are used for tanning leather. M. Gale has also been used in the preparation of beer. The wax from the drupelets of M. cerífera and M. carolinensis is used for making candles. The fruit of M. sapida and M. Nagi is edible. M. (Comptonia) asplenifolia has been used as a tonic. A volatile oil is obtained from the fruits of M. Gale. The root of M. cerífera is emetic and purgative. M. Nagi is cultivated in California for the edible fruit. M. asplenifolia, native in the United States, is grown for ornament. Other species are sometimes planted. Order 26. Juglandales 53. Juglandaceae (from the genus Juglans, a contraction of the Latin Jovis glans, the nut of Jupiter). Walnut Family. Fig. 15. Trees or shrubs, often resinous: leaves alternate, exstipulate, pinnately compound: flowers monoecious, small; the staminate in drooping catkins with single perianth of 4 parts, or rarely 0, one flower for each bract; the pistillate 2-3 together, with perianth of 4 parts adherent to the ovary as are also the bract and bracteole; ovary inferior, 1-celled; ovule 1, basal, orthotropous; stigmas usually 2- or 4-branched: fruit a nut with a fleshy exocarp, or bursting irregularly, or 4-valyed, or winged. In this family are 6 genera and about 35 species of the north temperate zone. The largest genus is Carya with 10 species. The family is related to other Amentiferae, e.g., Myricaceae, Fagaceae, and Betulaceae. The indehiscent, 1-seeded fruit, basal seeds, 2 carpels, perianth and pinnate leaves are distinctive. Fossil species are known. The wood of English walnut is highly valued, but that of Juglans nigra (black walnut) is one of the most valuable of woods. Hickory wood is prized for its hardness and toughness. The fruits of the English walnut (J. regia), butternut (J. cinerea), and of species of Carya (hickory) are among the most important food-nuts. The leaves and bark of Carya and Juglans are purgative. Green dyes are obtained from Carya tomentosa, and yellow from C. ovata, C. sulcata, and C. glabra. Walnut oil and hickory oil are in the trade. The cultivated genera in America are Carya or Hicoria (Hickory, Pecan, Bitternut, Pignut, Mockernut, Shellbark, Kingnut), native and hardy; Juglans (Walnut, Butternut, English Walnut), ornamental, fruit, and timber; Platycarya, ornamental; Pterocarya, ornamental. Order 27. Fagales 54. Betulaceae (from the genus Betula, the ancient Latin name of the birch). Birch Family. Fig. 15. Trees or shrubs: leaves alternate, simple, mostly pinnately parallel-veined: flowers monoecious, regular, much reduced; the staminate in slender catkins; the pistillate in short spikes, rarely in flexuous catkins or geminate; 3 flowers, rarely by reduction 2 or 1 flower behind each bract; perianth of the staminate flower single, 2-4-lobed or 0; stamens 2-10: perianth of the pistillate flower absent in Betula and Alnus, in other genera an epigynous crown of several tiny scales; ovary inferior, originally 2-celled and each cell 1-ovuled, but only one cell and 1 seed maturing; stigmas 2: fruit an indehiscent nutlet, often winged; either separating from the bract and bracteoles (Alnus, Betula), or falling with them, in which case these organs form a protective involucre (Corylus), or a winged or bladdery organ concerned in seed-dissemination (Carpinus, Ostrya); seeds anatropous, exalbuminous. Six genera and about 75 species inhabit the extra-tropical northern hemisphere; many are arctic, some of which are creeping. Fossil species are known. The family is related to the Fagaceae and other amentiferous families. The pistillate flowers in spikes, the presence of a perianth in one or the other sex, the cymose group of flowers for each bract, the 2 carpels, and the single integument of the seed are characteristic. The wood of Alnus and Betula is prized by wagon-makers, cabinet-makers and turners; charcoal for gunpowder is made from this wood. The twigs of Betula are made into brooms. The bark of Betula papyrifera strips off in thin plates and is used for making canoes and for writing-paper. The very thin bark-layers of B. Bhojpattra of India also furnish writing-paper. Vinegar and beer are made from the sugary sap of Betula, which is also considered an efficient antiscorbutic. The bark of Alnus and Betula is used in tanning Russia leather, and other kinds. Hazelnuts are the fruit of Corylus; filberts of Corylus Avellana. Oil of betula has a flavor like wintergreen. The wood of Ostrya is very hard and prized for beetles. The wood of all the Betulaceae is good for firewood. Several genera are in cultivation in America for ornament or for the fruit (Corylus) such as: Alnus (Alder); Betula (Birch); Carpinus (Hornbeam Tree, Blue Beech, Water Beech); Corylus (Hazel, Filbert, Cobnut); and Ostrya (Hop Hornbeam, Ironwood, Leverwood). 55. Fagaceae (from the genus Fagus, the classical name, in allusion to the esculent nuts). Beech Family. Fig. 16. Trees or shrubs: leaves simple, alternate: flowers monoecious; the staminate in slender catkins, one flower with each bract and a perianth of 4-6 parts; the pistillate solitary or in groups of 3, epigynous, the perianth reduced; ovary mostly 3- or 6-celled; ovules 2 in each cell, suspended, all but one in the ovary aborting; integuments 2; stigmas 3: fruit a 1-seeded nut, which singly, or in a group of 2-3, is surrounded by a special involucre. The family has 5 genera and about 600 species, all natives of the subtropical and temperate northern hemisphere, except the antarctic genus, Nothofagus. The largest genera are Quercus with 200 species, and Pasania with 100 species. The family is related to the Betulaceae and other amentiferous families; but the staminate flowers alone in catkins, the indehiscent 1-seeded fruit, the 3 carpels, and the special involucre are distinctive. There has been much debate as to the morphology of the involucre,—whether it is composed of the bracteoles of the little dichasium, or represents sterile scales of the condensed catkin, or is a wholly new outgrowth of the subfloral axis. The latter is a recent view of Engler. This involucre becomes the bur in beech and chestnut, and the cup in the oak. The wood of white oak, red oak and many other species is very valuable, as is also that of beech and chestnut. The bark of Quercus Suber of Spain yields bottle-cork. The bark of Q. velutina of America is called quercitron, and is used to dye yellow. The kermes insect, which furnishes a crimson dye, lives on Q. coccifera of the Mediterranean. The stings of gall insects produce the commercial oak-galls from which tannic and gallic acid are obtained, and from which ink was made. Officinal creosote is distilled from the tar of species of Fagus. The nut-like fruits of Castanea, Fagus, Quercus Ilex, Q. Robur, and Q. Aegilops are eaten. The cups of Q. Aegilops are sold for dyeing black and for tanning. The bark from many species of this family is used for tan-bark. In America several genera are cultivated for ornament, food, and timber: Castanea inc. (Chestnut, Chinquapin); Castanopsis Fagus (Beech); Nothofagus, little known; Quercus (Oak, Black Jack). Order 28. Urticales 56. Ulmaceae (from the genus Ulmus, the classical name). Elm Family. Fig. 16. Trees or shrubs without milky juice: leaves alternate, usually oblique: flowers bisexual or unisexual, regular, small; perianth simple; parts 4-5, rarely 3-7; stamens of the same number opposite the sepals, rarely twice as many, not elastically incurved; ovary superior, 1-celled, 1-ovuled; the ovule suspended, anatropous; stigmas usually 2: fruit nut-like, drupaceous, or winged. Thirteen genera and about 140 species are generally distributed in all but the polar regions. The largest genus is Celtis, with 60 species. The family is closely related to the Urticaceae and Moraceae. Its non-elastic stamens, and suspended anatropous seeds are important distinguishing characters. The seeds of some species of Celtis are edible. The wood is used to make wind instruments, and the like. Elm wood is of use in the crafts. The mucilaginous bark of slippery elm (Ulmus fulva) is used for poultices and coughs. The fragrant wood of Planera Abelicea of Crete is false sandalwood. There are several genera in cultivation in America. Among these are: Aphananthe, ornamental; Celtis (Nettle Tree, Hackberry, Sugarberry), hardy, ornamental; Planera (Water Elm), ornamental; Ulmus (Elm), ornamental, and for timber; Zelkova, ornamental. 57. Moraceae (from the genus Morus, the classical name). Mulberry Family. Fig. 16. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, sometimes climbing: juice milky: leaves alternate: flowers dioecious or monoecious, regular, small, mostly in heads or spikes, or lining the hollow pyriform fleshy axis of the inflorescence (Ficus); perianth single, of 4, rarely 2-6, imbricated parts, more or less united and fleshy in the pistillate flower; stamens of the same number and opposite the sepals, usually indexed in the bud and elastic; ovary superior, sessile or stipitate, 1-celled, 1-ovuled; the ovule suspended, amphitropous, rarely basal; stigmas 1-2: fruit an achene or drupe enveloped by the fleshy perianth, or on a fleshy gynophore, or composed of achenes in a fleshy hollow common receptacle. Moraceae contains 55 genera and about 950 species, mostly of tropical distribution, 6 species of which are native in the eastern United States. The largest genus is Ficus with 600 species. The family is frequently united with the Urticaceae and differs from that family only in the presence of milky juice, in the two stigmas, and in the usually suspended seed. From the Ulmaceae it differs in the inflexed elastic stamens. The fruit of the black mulberry (Morus nigra) has been eaten since earliest times. Those of M. rubra (red mulberry), and M. alba are also used for food. The bread fruit (Artocarpus incisa) of the South Sea Islands is now cultivated for food everywhere in the tropics. The leaves of Morus indica are eaten in India: those of M. rubra in America. M. serrata is cultivated for fodder. The fig is the fleshy receptacle of the inflorescence of Ficus Carica. For the structure and pollination of this remarkable plant see Kerner and Oliver's "Natural History of Plants." The leaves of Morus are diuretic and anthelmintic. The juice of Antiaris toxicaría is used by the Javanese to poison arrows. Hops are used in medicine, also to flavor beer. Hashish, bhang or Cannabis indica is obtained from Cannabis sativa, and is much used in the East as a narcotic to chew and smoke like opium. The fibers of C. sativa are hemp. The bark of Broussonetia furnishes clothing to the South Sea Islanders. The wood of Maclura aurantiaca is flexible; the yellow juice of the fruit of this plant was used by the Indians to paint their faces. Cudrania javanensis yields a dye. The milky juice of Ficus elastica and other species yield commercial rubber. F. indica is a banyan tree of India. F. religiosa is the sacred fig. The leaves of various species of mulberry are used to feed silkworms. Shellac is obtained from a small hemipterous insect which lives on F. laccifera and F. religiosa in India. Several genera are in cultivation in America, the majority in the far South. Among these are: Artocarpus (Bread Fruit, Jack Fruit), cultivated in the West Indies and in botanical gardens; Brosimum (Bread Nut), tropical; Broussonetia (Paper Mulberry), ornamental, semi-hardy; Cannabis (Hemp), grown for fiber or ornament; Cudrania, grown for hedges; Ficus (Fig, India Rubber Plant, Banyan Tree, Creeping Fig, Peepul Tree), grown in warm regions and in the greenhouses; Humulus (Hops), grown for the fruit; Maclura (Osage Orange), for hedges; Morus (Mulberry), for fruit, and leaves for silkworms. 58. Urticaceae (from the genus Urtica, the classical Latin name of the plant, signifying to burn). Nettle Family. Fig. 17. Herbs, shrubs or trees, rarely climbing: leaves alternate or opposite: flowers unisexual, regular; perianth single, rarely 0, usually green, consisting of 4-5, rarely 2-3, separate or united parts, imbricated or valvate; stamens as many, and opposite the segments, inflexed and uncoiling elastically; ovary sessile, or pedicelled, or rarely united with the perianth, 1-celled, 1-ovuled; style 1; stigma feathery: fruit an achene or drupe; seeds basal, orthotropous; embryo straight. The 41 genera and about 475 species are mainly tropical, a few in North America and fewer in Europe. The largest genus is Pilea, with 100 species. The family is very closely related to the Moraceae and Ulmaceae, with which it was formerly united. The apetalous anemophilous flowers, with elastic stamens opposite the sepals, and the 1-celled ovary, with a single basal, orthotropous seed, are distinctive. Many of the Urticaceae are covered with stinging hairs containing formic acid. The common nettles are examples. Cystoliths are common in the leaves. Parietaria diffusa and P. erecta contain niter, and have been used as diuretics. Nettles were used by doctors to flog patients in order to produce a counter irritation of the skin, a practice called "urtication." Other species have been used locally as medicine. Laportea Stimulans has been used as a fish-poison. The bast fibers of many species are useful; e.g., Urtica dioica, U. cannabina, Laportea canadensis, and especially the China grass or ramie (Boehmeria nivea). The fibers of this latter have long been used in the Netherlands. The young foliage of many Urticaceae is used as spinach. The tuberous root of Pouzolzia tuberosa is eaten. The following are in cultivation in America; three of them are ornamental: Pellionia, a greenhouse creeper; Pilea (Artillery Plant), a garden and greenhouse plant; and Urera, a greenhouse shrub. The other genus, Urtica (Nettle), is grown for fiber, and Boehmeria occurs occasionally in cultivation. The above text is from the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. It may be out of date, but still contains valuable and interesting information which can be incorporated into the remainder of the article. Click on "Collapse" in the header to hide this text.

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References

• Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963

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