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Read about Magnolia in the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture 

Magnolia (after Pierre Magnol, professor of medicine and director of the botanic garden at Montpellier, 1638—1715). Magnoliaceae. Woody plants grown chiefly for their showy white, pink or purple flowers and also for their handsome foliage; mostly spring-blooming.

Deciduous or evergreen trees and shrubs, with rather stout branches marked with conspicuous lf.-scars: lvs. alternate, entire; the stipules usually adnate to the petiole and inclosing the young successive lf.: fls. terminal, solitary, the buds inclosed in a stipular spathe; sepals 3, often petaloid; petals 6-15; stamens and carpels numerous, the latter connate into a spindle, developing into a cone-like somewhat fleshy or leathery fr., with dehiscent, 1-2 seeded carpels; the large, usually scarlet seeds often suspended for a time from the fr. by thin threads.—About 35 species in N. and Cent. Amer., Himalayas and E. Asia. The wood is close-grained, usually light and satiny, but not durable; that of M. hypoleuca is much used in Japan for lacquered ware; the bark and fr. of some species have been used medicinally as a tonic and stimulant.

The magnolias are highly ornamental and popular, with large white, pink or purple, rarely yellowish flowers, often fragrant; the cone-shaped fruits are often pink or scarlet and very decorative. Most of the deciduous species are fairly hardy, at least in sheltered positions, as far north as northern New York and Massachusetts, and M. acuminata, M. Kobus and M. stellata even farther north, while M. Campbellii is the most tender. Of the evergreen species, M. grandiflora, one of the most beautiful native trees; is precariously hardy north to Philadelphia. The Asiatic deciduous species are among the most showy and striking of the early-flowering trees and shrubs; the earliest is the shrubby M. stellata, blooming in mild climates in March, and after this M. denudata comes into bloom, closely followed by M. Soulangeana and after this M. liliflora. The handsomest of the deciduous species is probably M. hypoleuca, with the very large leaves silvery white below and with showy, sweet-scented flowers; also the American M. macrophylla and M. tripetala are conspicuous by their very large foliage. The magnolias are usually planted as single specimens on the lawn, and there are, perhaps, no plants more striking against a background of dark green conifers. Some species, as M. grandiflora in the South and M. acuminata farther north, are fine avenue trees. The magnolias thrive best in somewhat rich, moderately moist and porous soil, preferring sandy or peaty loam, but some kinds which usually grow naturally on the borders of swamps, as M. glauca, thrive as well in moist and swampy situations. Transplanting is difficult and is most successfully performed just when the new growth is starting. Propagation is by seeds sown immediately or stratified, and by layers of last year's growth put down in spring and tongued or notched. Layers are usually severed and transplanted the following spring, but as many of them die after transplanting, it is a safer way to take them off early in July, when the new growth has ripened, plant them in pots and keep in a close frame until they are established. Varieties and rarer kinds are often veneer- or side-grafted in early spring or summer on potted stock in the greenhouse or frame; as a stock M. tripetala is perhaps the best on account of its better fibrous roots, which render transplanting safer, but M. acuminata is also a good stock. Sometimes increased by greenwood cuttings taken with a heel and handled under glass.

Magnolias in the South.

Evergreen kinds.

Among the finest magnolias cultivated in the South are the two native evergreen species, M. grandiflora and M. glauca, and the exotics M. Coco (M. pumila) and M. fuscata, the last being now referred to Michelia. Magnolia grandiflora is a noble tree. It is native of the middle and southern sections of Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, Louisiana and the upper districts of Florida, and is recognized as one of the grandest of all broad-leaved evergreen trees. In its native habitat it attains a height of 75 to 100 feet, with very large, oval or lanceolate coriaceous leaves. The latter vary, however, from very broad to rather narrow, some with a rusty under surface, others quite smooth. The flowers vary also in size, the largest frequently measuring 10 to 12 inches in diameter when fully expanded; others do not attain more than half that size. They appear early in May, in some sections during the latter part of April, and continue until the end of June. Some trees produce a few flowers during August, and even as late as October, but these are exceptions. Each flower lasts from two to four days, when the petals fall and the cone-like fruit appears. This gradually increases in size until September, when the bright coral-red seeds are detached and hang on long filaments. The seed should be gathered when fully ripe, put in dry sand until February in the South, then in moist sand for a week or ten days, when the resinous cuticle can be removed by washing. Sow the cleaned seed in a box or cold frame, and as the plants show their second leaves pot off in small pots. In July, give a larger-sized pot, and the plants will be sufficiently large to plant in permanent place during the following autumn or winter. It is always advisable to take pot-grown plants, as they succeed better than plants taken up with bare roots. Magnolias are voracious feeders, and require rich soil and an abundance of plant-food. Their roots extend to a great length, and to bring out the stately beauty of this tree they should be given ample space. The wood is white, and valued for cabinet-work. There arc many forms cultivated in European nurseries, their main characteristics being in the size and form of the leaves and size of flowers. They are propagated by grafting, either by inarching or cleft- or tongue-graft. The latter should be done under glass, taking two-year-old pot-grown seedlings. The fragrance of the flowers varies also, some flowers being more pungent than others, but, as a rule, the fragrance is pleasant. The principal varieties are M. grandiflora var. gloriosa, with flowers often measuring 14 inches in diameter; foliage broad and massive, brown on under surface. The tree seldom grows beyond 40 feet. Var. praecox, or early-flowering. Var. rotundifolia, with very dark green roundish leaves, rusty underneath.

Magnolia glauca, the sweet bay, is an evergreen tree in the southern states, becoming deciduous northward. It attains a height of 30 feet in rich bottoms or swampy lands: leaves oval, long or elliptical, with a glaucous under surface: flowers white, 3 to 4 inches in diameter, very fragrant, and produced from May to July. This tree is not sufficiently appreciated as an ornamental in landscape gardening.

Magnolia Coco (M. pumila, or Talauma pumila) is a very dwarf Chinese species, seldom growing more than 4 or 5 feet high: leaves smooth, elliptical, sharp-pointed, coriaceous: flowers 1 to 1½ inches in diameter, white or slightly tinged green, with six to nine fleshy petals, which drop soon after the flowers expand. The fragrance is intense at night, and resembles a ripe pineapple. It thrives best in a rich, partially shaded soil, but a frost of 10° below the freezing-point will injure it. It is therefore best to grow it as a conservatory plant. Propagate by ripened wood cuttings in bottom heat. As this plant is in bloom during nearly the whole year, and its delicate fragrance is unsurpassed, it is strange that it is so little known.

Deciduous kinds.

Magnolia acuminata (cucumber tree) is an upright- growing variety, with spreading branches, especially desirable for the upper sections, where it attains an immense size: leaves oblong, bright green: greenish yellow flowers produced in late spring.

Magnolia cordata is an exceedingly rare variety found only near Augusta, Georgia, and the western part of South Carolina: leaves oval: flowers about 3 inches long, lemon-yellow. Forms a small tree. Does well in sandy soil.

Magnolia denudata (Yulan) is a native of China with pure white flowers produced in early spring before the leaves appear. It attains an ultimate height of not more than 20 feet.

Magnolia Fraseri has leaves 8 to 12 inches long and produces white flowers 3 to 4 inches wide. This is a hardy variety and is especially adapted to the upper section. Attains a height of 25 to 50 feet. Found naturally from Virginia to Florida.

Magnolia Kobus, from Japan, is of pyramidal growth with short and slender branches: leaves-4 to 5 inches long: flowers pure white, appearing before the leaves. A desirable early-flowering species.

Magnolia macrophylla (great-leaved magnolia) is a symmetrical-growing variety with wide, spreading branches, growing naturally as far south as Florida: leaves 18 to 24 inches in length, 9 to 10 inches wide, bright green above, silvery beneath: flowers 10 to 12 inches in diameter, white, disagreeable odor. Tree attains a height of 20 to 50 feet.

Magnolia Soulangeana (Soulang's magnolia) is a magnificent tree of garden origin and is supposed to be a hybrid between Magnolia liliflora and Magnolia denudata: leaves dark green, expanding after the flowers have passed: flowers large, cup-shaped, creamy white, more or less suffused with pink; blooms in March: hardy: ultimate height, 25 feet. Var. nigra (dark-flowered magnolia) is a variety of vigorous and robust growth: flowers large, dark purple, several shades darker than Magnolia liliflora, a free bloomer; begins to bloom in March and blooms spasmodically during the entire summer. In var. Lennei (Lenne's magnolia) the flowers are deep crimson on the outside; blooms a little later than the type. Var. speciosa is almost identical in color with the species but more cupshaped and petals broader.

Magnolia stellata (M. Halleana, starry magnolia) is of dwarf habit: flowers semi-double, pure white and very fragrant. Blooms from two to three weeks earlier than any other magnolia; very hardy.

Magnolia tripetala (umbrella magnolia) is a tree 20 to 40 feet high: leaves dark green, light underneath: flowers 8 to 10 inches in diameter, white: leaves 10 to 21 inches long, 6 to 8 inches broad. Found from Pennsylvania to Mississippi.

M. compreassa, Maxim.-Michelia compressa. — M . Dawsoniana, Rehd. & Wilson. Tree, to 35 ft.: lvs. subcoriaceous, obovate, glossy above, glabrous beneath, 3-6 in. long: fr. cylindric, 4 in. long: fls. unknown. W. China. — M. fuscata, Andr.-Michelia fuscata. — M. globosa. Hook. f. & Thorns. Allied to M. parviflora. Tree, to 40 ft. : lvs. ovate, fulvous-pubescent on the veins beneath, 5-9 in. long: stamens and pistil bright red: fr. oblong, 2 in. long. Himalayas. — M. offticinalis, Rehd. & Wilson. Closely related to M. hypoleuca. Branchlets yellowish: lvs. obovate, to 1 ½ ft. long: stamens shorter: fr. oblong-ovate, 4-5 in. long. Cent. China. — M. Sargentiana, Rehd. & Wilson. Tree, to 75 ft.: lvs. subcoriaceous, obovate, glabrous above, pubescent beneath, 4-7 ½ in. long: fr. cylindric, 4-6 in. long: fls. unknown, said to be rosy red and about 8 in. across. W, China. Var. robusta, Rehd. & Wilson. Lvs. oblong- obovate, 6-9 in. long: fr. to 7½ in. long.


The above text is from the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. It may be out of date, but still contains valuable and interesting information which can be incorporated into the remainder of the article. Click on "Collapse" in the header to hide this text.


Template:Otheruses1

Magnolia
Magnolia x wieseneri
Magnolia x wieseneri
Plant Info
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Magnoliales
Family: Magnoliaceae
Genus: Magnolia
L.

Species
See text

Template:Commons

Magnolia is a large genus of about 210[1] flowering plant species in the subfamily Magnolioideae of the family Magnoliaceae.

The natural range of Magnolia species is rather scattered and includes eastern North America, Central America and the West Indies and east and southeast Asia. Some species are found in South America. Today many species of Magnolia and an ever increasing number of hybrids can also be found as ornamental trees in large parts of North America, Europe, Australia and New Zealand. The Magnolia tree is also found in Bottomland areas.

The genus is named after French botanist Pierre Magnol, from Montpellier. See Origin of the name Magnolia.

Magnolia is an ancient genus. Having evolved before bees appeared, the flowers developed to encourage pollination by beetles. As a result, the carpels of Magnolia flowers are tough, to avoid damage by eating and crawling beetles. Fossilised specimens of M. acuminata have been found dating to 20 million years ago, and of plants identifiably belonging to the Magnoliaceae dating back to 95 million years ago. Another primitive aspect of Magnolias is their lack of distinct sepals or petals. The term tepal has been coined to refer to the intermediate element that Magnolia has instead. Magnolias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Giant Leopard Moth.

Magnolia grandiflora is the official state flower of both Mississippi and Louisiana[2]. The flower's abundance in Mississippi is reflected in its state nickname, "Magnolia State". The magnolia is also the official state tree of Mississippi.

Origin of the name Magnolia

In 1703 Charles Plumier (1646-1704) described a flowering tree from the island of Martinique in his Genera[3]. He gave the species, known locally as 'Talauma', the genus name Magnolia, after Pierre Magnol. The English botanist William Sherard, who studied botany in Paris under Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, a pupil of Magnol, was most probably the first after Plumier to adopt the genus name Magnolia. He was at least responsible for the taxonomic part of Johann Jacob Dillenius's Hortus Elthamensis[4] and of Mark Catesby's famous Natural history of Carolina[5]. These were the first works after Plumier's Genera that used the name Magnolia, this time for some species of flowering trees from temperate North America.

Carolus Linnaeus, who was familiar with Plumier's Genera, adopted the genus name Magnolia in 1735 in his first edition of Systema naturae, without a description but with a reference to Plumier's work. In 1753, he took up Plumier's Magnolia in the first edition of Species plantarum. Since Linnaeus never saw a herbarium specimen (if there has ever been one) of Plumier's Magnolia and had only his description and a rather poor picture at hand, he must have taken it for the same plant which was described by Catesby in his 1731 'Natural History of Carolina, and placed it in the synonymy of Magnolia virginiana variety foetida, the taxon now known as Magnolia grandiflora.

The species that Plumier originally named Magnolia was later described as Annona dodecapetala by Lamarck[6], and has since been named Magnolia plumieri and Talauma plumieri (and still a number of other names) but is now known as Magnolia dodecapetala[7]. xx

Early references and descriptions

Magnolias have long been known and used in China. References to their medicinal qualities go back to as early as 1083[8]. After the Spanish conquest of Mexico, Philip II commissioned his court physician Francisco Hernandez in 1570 to undertake a scientific expedition. Hernandez made numerous descriptions of plants, accompanied by drawings, but publication was delayed and hampered by a number of consecutive accidents. Between 1629 and 1651 the material was re-edited by members of the Academy of Lincei and issued (1651) in three editions as Nova plantarum historia Mexicana. This work contains a drawing of a plant under the vernacular name Eloxochitl, that is almost certainly Magnolia dealbata (= Magnolia macrophylla subsp. dealbata). This must have been the first-ever description of a Magnolia that came to the Western World[9]. It is unclear whether there are early descriptions made by English or French missionaries that were sent to North America but the first introduction of a Magnolia into Europe is well documented. It was the missionary and plant collector John Bannister (1654-1693) who sent back Laurus tulipifera, foliis subtus ex cinereo aut argenteo purpurascentibus[10] from Virginia in 1688, to Henry Compton, the Bishop of London. This species is now known as Magnolia virginiana (Sweetbay magnolia). Thus the first Magnolia had already found its way to Europe before Charles Plumier discovered his Talauma on Martinique and gave it the name Magnolia[11].

Nomenclature and classification

When Linnaeus took up Magnolia in his Species plantarum (1753), he created a lemma of only one species: Magnolia virginiana. Under that species he described five varieties (glauca, foetida, grisea, tripetala and acuminata). In the tenth edition of Systema naturae (1759), he merged grisea with glauca, and raised the four remaining varieties to specific status[12].

By the end of the 18th century, botanists and plant hunters exploring Asia began to name and describe the Magnolia species from China and Japan. The first Asiatic species to be described by western botanists were Magnolia denudata and Magnolia liliiflora[13], and Magnolia coco and Magnolia figo[14]. Soon after that, in 1794, Carl Peter Thunberg collected and described Magnolia obovata from Japan and, within a close proximity to that period, Magnolia kobus was also first collected[15].

With the number of species increasing, the genus was divided into subgenus Magnolia, and subgenus Yulania. Magnolia contains the American evergreen species Magnolia grandiflora, which is of horticultural importance, especially in the United States, and Magnolia virginiana, the type species. Yulania contains several deciduous Asiatic species, such as Magnolia denudata and Magnolia kobus, which have become horticulturally important in their own right and as parents in hybrids. Classified in Yulania, is also the American deciduous Magnolia acuminata (Cucumber tree), which has recently attained greater status as the parent which is responsible for the yellow flower colour in many new hybrids.

Relations in the family Magnoliaceae have been puzzling taxonomists for a long time. Because the family is quite old and has survived many geological events (such as ice ages, mountain formation and continental drift), its distribution has become scattered. Some species or groups of species have been isolated for a long time, while others could stay in close contact. To create divisions in the family (or even within the genus Magnolia), solely based upon morphological characters, has proven to be a near impossible task[16]

By the end of the 20th century, DNA sequencing had become available as a method of large scale research on phylogenetic relationships. Several studies, including studies on many species in the family Magnoliaceae, were carried out to investigate relationships[17][18][19]. What these studies all revealed was that genus Michelia and Magnolia subgenus Yulania were far more closely allied to each other than either one of them was to Magnolia subgenus Magnolia. These phylogenetic studies were supported by morphological data[20].

As nomenclature is supposed to reflect relationships, the situation with the species names in Michelia and Magnolia subgenus Yulania was undesirable. Taxonomically there are three choices; 1: to join Michelia and Yulania species in a common genus, not being Magnolia (for which the name Michelia has priority); 2: to raise subgenus Yulania to generic rank, leaving Michelia names and subgenus Magnolia names untouched; or 3: to join Michelia with genus Magnolia into genus Magnolia s.l. (a big genus). Magnolia subgenus Magnolia can not be renamed because it contains Magnolia virginiana, the type species of the genus and of the family. Not many Michelia species have so far become horticulturally or economically important, apart for their wood. Both subgenus Magnolia and subgenus Yulania include species of major horticultural importance, and a change of name would be very undesirable for many people, especially in the horticultural branch. In Europe, Magnolia even is more or less synonym for Yulania, since most of the cultivated species in this continent have Magnolia (Yulania) denudata as one of their parents. Most taxonomists who acknowledge close relations between Yulania and Michelia therefore support the third option and join Michelia with Magnolia.

The same goes, mutatis mutandis, for the (former) genera Talauma and Dugandiodendron, which are then placed in subgenus Magnolia, and genus Manglietia, which could be joined with subgenus Magnolia or may even earn the status of an extra subgenus. Elmerrillia seems to be closely related to Michelia and Yulania, in which case it will most likely be treated in the same way as Michelia is now. The precise nomenclatural status of small or monospecific genera like Kmeria, Parakmeria, Pachylarnax, Manglietiastrum, Aromadendron, Woonyoungia, Alcimandra, Paramichelia and Tsoongiodendron remains uncertain. Taxonomists who merge Michelia into Magnolia tend to merge these small genera into Magnolia s.l. as well. At present, western botanist tend toward a big Magnolia genus, whereas many Chinese botanists still recognize the different small genera.

Selected species of Magnolia

Note: the following list only includes temperate species; many other species occur in tropical areas. For a full list, see the Magnolia Society list

Uses

In general, Magnolia is a genus which has attracted a lot of horticultural interest. Hybridisation has been immensely successful in combining the best aspects of different species to give plants which flower at an earlier age than the species themselves, as well as having more impressive flowers. One of the most popular garden magnolias is a hybrid, M. x soulangeana (Saucer magnolia; hybrid M. liliiflora x M. denudata).

The bark from M. officinalis has long been used in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is known as houpu. In Japan, M. obovata has been used in a similar manner. The aromatic bark contains magnolol and honokiol, two polyphenolic compounds that have demonstrated anti-anxiety and anti-angiogenic properties. Magnolia bark also has been shown to reduce allergic and asthmatic reactions.[21] [22]

Gallery

References

  1. ↑ The number of species in the genus Magnolia depends on the taxonomic view that one takes up. Recent molecular and morphological research shows that former genera Talauma, Dugandiodendron, Manglietia, Michelia, Elmerrillia, Kmeria, Parakmeria, Pachylarnax (and a small number of monospecific genera) all belong within the same genus, Magnolia s.l. (s.l. = sensu lato: 'in a broad sense', as opposed to s.s. = sensu stricto: 'in a narrow sense'). The genus Magnolia s.s. contains about 120 species. See the section Nomenclature and classification in this article.
  2. ↑ For this reason, it has become a symbol of support for the regions most heavily damaged by Hurricane Katrina in the late summer of 2005 (for example, presenters at the 2005 Emmy Awards on September 18, 2005, wore magnolias on their lapels, as did host Ellen DeGeneres, a New Orleans native).
  3. ↑ Plumier, C. (1703) Nova plantarum Americanarum genera. Paris. [New genera of American plants].
  4. ↑ Dillenius, J.J. (1732), Hortus Elthamensis, seu plantarum rariorum quas in horto suo Elthami in Cantio coluit vir ornamentissimus et praestantissimus Jacobus Sherard. London [The garden of Eltham, or rather about the rare plants that the most distinguished and prominent man Jacob Sherard grows in his garden in Eltham in Kent].
  5. ↑ Catesby, M. (1731), The natural history of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands, containing the figures of birds, beasts, fishes, serpents, insects and plants, Vol. 1. London.
  6. ↑ Lamarck, J.B.P.A. de (1786), Encyclopédie Méthodique Botanique, tome second: 127. Paris.
  7. ↑ Under the rule of priority, the first name that is validly published in Linnaeus' Species plantarum (1 May1753) or any other work of any other botanist after that, takes precedence over later names. Plumier's name was not a binomen and moreover published before Species plantarum, so it has no status. The first binomen that was published after 1753 was Lamarck's Annona dodecapetala (1786). Magnolia plumieri (1788) was published on a later date by Schwartz, and is treated as a later synonym, as are Magnolia fatiscens (1817; Richard), Talauma caerulea (Jaume St-Hilaire 1805) and Magnolia linguifolia (1822).
  8. ↑ Treseder (p. 9) quotes the "Cheng Lei Pen Tshao" (Reclassified Pharmaceutical Natural History).
  9. ↑ Treseder, N.G. (1978), Magnolias: 9-13.
  10. ↑ Laurel-leaved tulip tree, with leaves of which the under sides from ash grey or silvery grey turn into purplish.
  11. ↑ Treseder, N.G. (1978), Magnolias: 14.
  12. ↑ Magnolia glauca has the same type specimen as Magnolia virginiana and as the latter is the first valid name, the species is now called Magnolia virginiana (Sweetbay magnolia). Var. foetida was renamed Magnolia grandiflora, which is legitimate as the epithet foetida only has priority in its rank of variety. Magnolia grandiflora is the Southern magnolia. Magnolia tripetala (Umbrella magnolia) and Magnolia acuminata (Cucumber tree) are still recognized as species.
  13. ↑ Under these names the species were described by Desrousseaux in Lamarck's Encyclopédie Méthodique Botanique, tome troisieme (1792): 675. In the beginning of the 20th century, descriptions which seemed to represent the same species, were found in a work of the French naturalist P.J. Buc'hoz, Plantes nouvellement découvertes (1779), under the names Lassonia heptapeta and Lassonia quinquepeta. In 1934, the English botanist J.E. Dandy argued that these names had priority over the names by which both species had been known for over a century and hence from then on Magnolia denudata had to be named Magnolia heptapeta, Magnolia liliiflora should be changed into Magnolia quinquepeta. After a lengthy debate, specialist taxonomists decided that the Buc'hoz names were based on chimaeras (pictures constructed of elements of different species), and as Buc'hoz did not cite or preserve herbarium specimens, his names were ruled not to be acceptable.
  14. ↑ These species were published as Liriodendron coco and Liriodendron figo by J. de Loureiro in Flora Cochinchinensis (1790) and later (1817) transferred to Magnolia by A. P. de Candolle. Magnolia figo was soon after transferred to the genus Michelia.
  15. ↑ Magnolia kobus only received its name in 1814, when it was validly published by A.P. de Candolle. There has been much confusion about earlier attempts to validly publish this species, especially because descriptions and type specimens did not match.
  16. ↑ In 1927 J.E. Dandy accepted 10 genera in The genera of Magnoliaceae, Kew Bulletin 1927: 257-264. In 1984 Law Yuh-Wu proposed 15 in A preliminary study on the taxonomy of the family Magnoliaceae, Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica 22: 89-109; in 2004 even 16, in Magnolias of China. This is not just about grouping some genera together where others do not; authors often choose different boundaries.
  17. ↑ Azuma, H., L.B. Thien & S. Kawano (1999), Molecular phylogeny of Magnolia (Magnoliaceae) inferred from cpDNA sequences and evolutionary divergence of the floral scents. Journal of Plant Research 112(1107): 291-306.
  18. ↑ Azuma, H., García-Franco, J.G., Rico-Gray, V., and Thien, L.B. (2001). Molecular phylogeny of the Magnoliaceae: the biogeography of tropical and temperate disjunctions. American Journal of Botany. 88: 2275-2285.
  19. ↑ Kim, S. et al. (2001), Phylogenetic relationships in family Magnoliaceae inferred from ndhF sequences. American Journal of Botany. 88(4): 717-728.
  20. ↑ Figlar, R.B. (2000), Proleptic branch initiation in Michelia and Magnolia subgenus Yulania provides basis for combinations in subfamily Magnolioideae. In: Liu Yu-hu et al., Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Family Magnoliaceae: 14-25, Science Press, Beijing.
  21. ↑ SupplementWatch library entry on Magnolia Bark
  22. ↑ Guangsong Pharmaceutical page on Magnolia Bark Extract
  • Treseder, N.G. (1978). Magnolias. London/Boston, Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-09619-0
  • Callaway, D.J. (1994). The World of Magnolias. Portland, Oregon, Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-236-6
  • Hunt, D. (ed). (1998). Magnolias and Their Allies. International Dendrology Society & Magnolia Society. ISBN 0-9517234-8-0
  • Law, Y.W. (= Liu, Y.H.) (2004). Magnolias of China. Hong-Kong, Beijing Science & Technology Press. ISBN 7-5304-2765-2

External links

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