7,617
edits
Changes
no edit summary
{{otheruses}}
'''Mushroom(s)''' are the fleshy, [[spore]]-bearing [[fruiting body|fruiting bodies]] of [[fungi]] typically produced above ground on soil or on their food sources. The standard for the name '''mushroom''' is the cultivated white button mushroom, ''[[Agaricus bisporus]]'', hence the word mushroom is most often applied to fungi ([[Basidiomycota]], [[Agaricomycetes]]) that have a stem (called a '''[[Stipe (mycology)|stipe]]'''), a cap (called a '''[[Pileus (mycology)|pileus]]'''), and gills (each called a [[lamella (mycology)|lamella]]/pl. lamellae) on the underside of the cap just as do store-bought white mushrooms. However, mushrooms can also be a wide variety of gilled fungi, with or without stems, and the term is used even more generally to describe both fleshy fruitbodies of some [[Ascomycota]] and woody or leathery fruitbodies of some [[Basidiomycota]], depending upon the context of the usage. Usually forms deviating from the standard form have more specific names, such as [[puffball]]s, [[stinkhorn]], [[morel]]s, etc. and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called [[agaric]]s, in reference to their similarity to ''[[Agaricus]]'' or placement in the order [[Agaricales]]. By extension, ''mushroom'' can also designate the entire fungus when in culture or when referring to the whole [[thallus]] (called a [[mycelium]]) of species forming fruitbodies called mushrooms.
[[Image:Amanita muscaria (fly agaric).JPG|right|thumb|250px|The mushroom ''[[Amanita muscaria]]'', commonly known as "fly agaric".]]
== Mushrooms vs. Toadstools ==
The terms "mushrooms" and "toadstools" go back centuries, and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application, except to say that the term "toadstool" was generally, but not exclusively, applied to poisonous fungi. For an example of early usage see Badham (1863[http://freespace.virgin.net/mikea.walton/badham/badcov.htm]). Reference was made to "tadstoles", "frogstooles", "frogge stoles", "tadstooles", "tode stoles", "toodys hatte", "toadstoole", "paddockstool", "puddockstool", "paddocstol", "toadstoole", and "paddockstooles" from 1398-1597, sometimes synonymous with "mushrom", "mushrum", "muscheron", "mousheroms", "mussheron", or "musserouns" <ref name=Ramsbottom_1954>{{cite book | author=Ramsbottom J | title=Mushrooms & Toadstools. A study of the Activities of Fungi | year=1954 }}</ref>. The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from the French word "Mousseron" in reference to moss (mousse). There may have been a direct connection to ''[[toad]]s'' (in reference to poisonous properties) for toadstools. However, there is no clear-cut delimitation between edible and poisonous fungi, so that mushrooms may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable, and it makes no sense to not be able to use the term mushroom when stating there are "poisonous mushrooms" which would be an [[oxymoron]] statement if the term mushroom could not be applied to poisonous fungi. The term toadstool is nowadays used in story telling when referring to poisonous or suspect mushrooms. The classic example of a '''toadstool''' is ''[[Amanita muscaria]]''.
== To mushroom - mushrooming - to pop up like mushrooms ==
[[Image:Yellowmushrooms.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Yellow, flower pot mushrooms (''Leucocoprinus birnbaumii'') at various states of development.]]
Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several commonly used phrases in the [[English language]]. In fact all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies. The [[agaricus bisporus|cultivated mushroom]] as well as the common [[field mushroom]] initially form minute [[fruiting body]] initials referred to as the pin stage, because of their small size. Slightly expanded they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its [[mycelium]] and expand, mainly by inflating preformed [[cells]] that took several days to form in the primordia. Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms, like ''[[Parasola]] plicatilis'' ([http://collectivesource.com/fungi/newpages/Coprinus_plicatilis.html] formerly ''[[Coprinus]] plicatlis'') that literally appear overnight and may be gone by late afternoon on hot summer days after rainfall. The [[primordia]] form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the [[thatch]] of lawns and after heavy rainfall or [[dew]]y conditions, balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, then collapse. They '''"mushroom"''' to full size. '''"To mushroom"''' means to rapidly grow in size, or to sprout up rapidly, i.e., an organization may "mushroom" from national to international almost overnight. To '''"pop up like mushrooms"''' is of similar derivation, but also has a gang slang usage (see below).
The term '''"mushrooming"''' differs in that it generally refers to the act of gathering mushrooms, in the wild, as in the statement "I'm going mushrooming today." This is often shortened to '''"shrooming"''', which has yet another connotation, which is to '''"do mushrooms"'''. To "do mushrooms" or "shrooms" often refers to taking hallucinogenic mushrooms (see below).
Notably, not all mushrooms expand overnight. Many are very slow growing. Those types of mushrooms generally add tissue to their fruitbodies in different manners, such as growing from the edges, or inserting [[hyphae]].
== Classification of Mushrooms ==
[[Image:Mushroomy Log.JPG|thumb|left|400px|Examples of [[polypore]]s, mushrooms without stalks, on a log.]]
Typical mushrooms are the fruitbodies of members of the order [[Agaricales]], whose type genus is ''[[Agaricus]]'', and type species is the field mushroom, ''[[Agaricus campestris]]''. However, in modern molecular defined classifications, not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruitbodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders in the class [[Agaricomycetes]]. For example, [[Cantharellus|chanterelles]] are in the [[Cantharellales]], false chanterelles like ''[[Gomphus]]'' are in the [[Gomphales]], milk mushrooms (''[[Lactarius]]'') and russulas (''[[Russula]]'') as well as ''[[Lentinellus]]'' are in the [[Russulales]], while the tough leathery genera ''[[Lentinus]]'' and ''[[Panus]]'' are among the [[Polyporales]], but ''[[Neolentinus]]'' is in the [[Gloeophyllales]], and the little pin-mushroom genus, ''[[Rickenella]]'' along with similar genera are in the [[Hymenochaetales]].
Within the main body of mushrooms, in the [[Agaricales]], are such common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom (''[[Marasmius]]'' ''oreades''), [[shiitake]], [[enoki]], [[oyster mushrooms]], [[fly agaric]]s and other [[amanita]]s, [[magic mushrooms]] like species of ''[[Psilocybe]]'', [[Volvariella|paddy straw mushrooms]], [[Coprinus comatus|shaggy manes]], etc.
An atypical 'mushroom' is the [[Lobster mushroom]], which is a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored [[parasite|parasitized]] fruitbody of a ''[[Russula]]'' or [[Lactarius]] colored and deformed by the mycoparasitic [[Ascomycete]] ''[[Hypomyces lactifluorum]]''[http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/aug2001.html].
Other 'mushrooms' are nongilled and then the term is loosely used, so that it is difficult to give a full account of their classifications. Some 'mushrooms' have pores underneath (and are usually called [[bolete]]s), others have spines, such as the [[hedgehog mushroom]] and other [[tooth fungus|tooth fungi]], and so on. Mushroom has been used for [[polypore]]s, [[puffball]]s, [[jelly fungi]], [[coral fungi]], [[Bracket fungus|bracket fungi]], [[stinkhorn]]s, and [[cup fungus|cup fungi]]. Mushrooms and other fungi are studied by [[mycology|mycologist]]s. Thus, the term ''mushroom'' is more one of common application to [[macroscopic]] fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] meaning. There are approximately 14,000 described species of mushrooms<ref name=Chang>Chang, S., and Miles, P.G., ''Mushrooms, Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact'', CRC Press, 2004</ref>.
{{main|Sporocarp (fungi)|Basidiocarp|Ascocarp}}
[[Image:TallMushroom.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The relative sizes of the Cap ([[pileus]]) and Stalk ([[stipe (mycology)|stipe]]) vary widely.]]
=== Identification of Mushrooms ===
Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are [[Basidiomycetes]] and gilled. Their spores, called [[basidiospore]]s, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level the basidiospores are shot off of [[basidia]] but then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side down, usually overnight a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruitbody is sporulating). The color of the powdery print (which is called a [[spore print]]) has been used to help classify mushrooms, hence is used to help identify them. Spore print colors range from white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, cream, and almost never blue or green or red.
While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to [[mediaeval]] and [[Victorian]] era combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors, tastes, shades of colors, and habitats and habit and season must, and are, all considered by mycologists, amateur and professional alike. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carry their own hazards because of poisons and [[allergens]]. Chemical spot tests are also used for some genera.
In general, identification to [[genus]] can often be accomplished in the field using a local mushroom guide. Identification to [[species]], however, requires more effort; one must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure and only the latter can provide certain characters needed for the identification of the species. However. over mature specimens loose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spored prints.
== Human use ==
[[Image:ChampignonMushroom.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[button mushroom]] (''Agaricus bisporus''), one of the most widely cultivated mushrooms in the world.]]
{{see|Ethnomycology}}
=== Edible mushrooms ===
{{main|Edible mushrooms|Mushroom hunting}}
[[Edible mushroom]]s are used extensively in [[cooking]], in many [[cuisine]]s (notably [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], [[European]] and [[Japanese food|Japanese]]). Though commonly thought to contain little nutritional value, many varieties of mushrooms are high in fiber and protein, and provide vitamins such as [[thiamine]] (B<sub>1</sub>), [[riboflavin]] (B<sub>2</sub>), [[niacin]] (B<sub>3</sub>), [[biotin]] (B<sub>7</sub>), [[cyanocobalamin|cobalamins]] (B<sub>12</sub>) and [[ascorbic acid]] (C), as well as minerals, including [[iron]], [[selenium]], [[potassium]] and [[phosphorus]]. Mushrooms have been gaining a higher profile for containing antioxidants Ergothioneine and Selenium.
Many of the varieties of mushrooms that are sold in local supermarkets, have been commercially grown on mushroom farms. These mushrooms are safe to eat because they are grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Some of the varieties that are grown commercially include: whites, [[crimini]], [[portabello mushroom|portabello]], [[shiitake]], [[oyster mushroom|oyster]] and [[enoki]].
There are a number of species of mushrooms that are [[poison]]ous, and although some may resemble edible varieties, eating them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild can be risky and a practice not to be undertaken by individuals not knowledgeable in mushroom identification. The problem is that separating edible from poisonous species depends upon the application of only a few easily recognizable traits - but there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms could be identified. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as [[mushroom hunting]], or simply "mushrooming".
=== Toxic mushrooms ===
{{main|Mushroom poisoning}}
[[Image:Amanita pantherina 1.JPG|left|250px|thumb|The [[Panther cap]] (''Amanita pantherina''), a toxic mushroom]]
Of central interest with respect to chemical properties of mushrooms is the fact that many species produce [[secondary metabolites]] that render them toxic, mind-altering, or even [[bioluminescence|bioluminescent]]. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit (see [[emetic]]s) the meal or avoid consumption altogether.
=== Psychoactive mushrooms ===
{{main|Psychedelic mushrooms}}
[[Psilocybin]] mushrooms possess [[psychopharmacology|psychedelic properties]]. They are commonly known as "magic mushrooms" or "shrooms", and are available in [[smart shop]]s in many parts of the world, though some countries have outlawed their sale. A number of other mushrooms are eaten for their psychoactive effects, such as [[Amanita muscaria|fly agaric]], which is used for [[shaman]]ic purposes by tribes in northeast [[Siberia]]. They have also been used in the West to potentiate, or increase, religious experiences. Because of their psychoactive properties, some mushrooms have played a role in native medicine, where they have been used to affect mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the [[Velada]] ceremony. A representative figure of traditional mushroom use is the [[shaman]], [[curandera]] (priest-healer), [[Maria Sabina]].
=== Medicinal mushrooms ===
Currently, many species of mushrooms and fungi utilized as folk medicines for thousands of years are under intense study by [[ethnobotanist]]s and medical researchers. [[Hen of the woods|Maitake]], [[shiitake]], and [[reishi]] are prominent among those being researched for their potential anti-[[cancer]], anti-[[virus|viral]], and/or immunity-enhancement properties. [[Psilocybin]], originally an extract of certain psychedelic mushrooms, is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from mental disease, such as [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]]. Minute amounts have been reported to stop [[cluster headache|cluster]] and [[migraine headache]]s{{Fact|date=April 2007}}.
=== Other uses ===
Mushrooms can be also used for [[dyeing]] [[wool]] and other natural fibers. The [[chromophore]]s of mushrooms are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic [[dye]]s the mushrooms were the primary sources on dyeing textiles. This technique has survived in Finland, and many [[historical reenactment|Middle Ages re-enactors]] have revived the skill again{{Fact|date=April 2007}}.
Some fungi, types of [[polypore]]s, loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as [[tinder fungus|tinder fungi]]). [[Ötzi the Iceman]] was found carrying such fungi. Mushrooms, and other [[fungi]], will likely play an increasingly important role in the development of effective biological remediation and filtration technologies. [http://www.USPTO.gov The US Patent and Trademark office]can be searched for patents related to the latest developments in [[mycoremediation]] and [[mycofiltration]].
== Trivia ==
{{Trivia|date=June 2007}}
* The [[slang]] term "mushrooms" is a gang related term [http://popcenter.org/problems/Supplemental_Material/gun_violence/Corbett_2002.pdf]for victims accidentally shot as collateral damage simply because they popped up suddenly, as do fungal mushrooms<ref name=Sherman_1989>{{cite journal | author=Sherman LW et al | title= Stray bullets and “mushrooms”: Random shootings of bystanders in four cities, 1977–1988 | journal=J. Quantitative Criminology | year=1989 | pages=297-316 | volume=5(4) }}</ref>.
* [[Mushroom management]] refers to unfair corporate policy (see [[anti-pattern]]s). ''The corporate treats their employees like mushrooms: they are kept in dark, they are shoveled with manure, and once they have grown big enough, their heads are cut off.''
* A [[Mushroom cloth]] is a specially selected piece of fabric whose abrasive properties are particularly useful for removing the outer layer (and soil) from edible mushrooms.
==References==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* ''All That the Rain Promises, and More'' (1991) ISBN 0-89815-388-3
* ''Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms'' (2000) ISBN 1-58008-175-4
* ''Mushroom Cultivator: A Practical Guide to Growing Mushrooms at Home'' (1983) ISBN 0-9610798-0-0
* ''Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact" (2004) ISBN 0-8493-1043-1
* '' Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Will Save The World (2005) ISBN 1-58008-579-2
* ''Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi'' (1986) ISBN 0-89815-169-4
* ''Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation'' (2004) ISBN 0-932551-64-5
* ''Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World'' (1996) ISBN 0-89815-839-7
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}} {{Commons|Mushrooms}} {{Cookbook|Mushroom}}
=== Wild mushrooms===
* [http://www.mushroomexpert.com/ Mushroom Expert]
* [http://www.mykoweb.com/ MykoWeb]
* [http://mushroomobserver.org/ Mushroom Observer] (All images are made available under a [[Creative Commons]] license.)
* [http://www.namyco.org/ North American Mycological Association]
* [http://mushrooms.simons-rock.edu/ An Aid to Mushroom Identification], ''[[Simon's Rock College]]''.
* [http://www.picturesgroup.com/QuickGal.php?album=Wild+Mushrooms/ PicturesGroup Mushroom gallery]
* [http://www.rogersmushrooms.com/ Roger Phillip's photographic guide]
===Cultivated mushrooms===
* [http://www.mushroomcouncil.org/ Mushroom Council]
* [http://www.mushroominfo.com/ Mushroom Info] – consumer info site
* [http://www.americanmushroom.org/index.htm The American Mushroom Institute]
* [http://www.mushrooms.ca/ Mushrooms Canada]
* [http://www.mushroom-uk.com/ Mushroom Bureau]
* [http://www.mushrooms.net.au/ Australian Mushroom Growers Association]
* [http://www.oz-mushrooms.com.au/ Australian Mushroom Industry] – site index
* [http://www.mushroomgrowers.co.nz/index.htm Commercial Mushroom Growers Federation NZ Ltd]
* [http://www.ugandamushroomassociation.bravehost.com/ Uganda Mushroom Growers]
* [http://www.mushroombusiness.com/ Mushroom Business Information Center]
=== Research related ===
* [http://www.mushworld.com/home/default-eng.htm MushWorld]
* [http://www.isms.biz/ International Society for Mushroom Science]
* [http://pnwfungi.org/ Pacific Northwest Fungi Online Journal]
* [http://www.iq.usp.br/wwwdocentes/stevani/ Fungi Bioluminescence Laboratory]
=== Other ===
* [http://www.allfiberarts.com/library/mushrooms/index.htm Dyeing with mushroom-derived pigment]
[[Category:Fungi]]
'''Mushroom(s)''' are the fleshy, [[spore]]-bearing [[fruiting body|fruiting bodies]] of [[fungi]] typically produced above ground on soil or on their food sources. The standard for the name '''mushroom''' is the cultivated white button mushroom, ''[[Agaricus bisporus]]'', hence the word mushroom is most often applied to fungi ([[Basidiomycota]], [[Agaricomycetes]]) that have a stem (called a '''[[Stipe (mycology)|stipe]]'''), a cap (called a '''[[Pileus (mycology)|pileus]]'''), and gills (each called a [[lamella (mycology)|lamella]]/pl. lamellae) on the underside of the cap just as do store-bought white mushrooms. However, mushrooms can also be a wide variety of gilled fungi, with or without stems, and the term is used even more generally to describe both fleshy fruitbodies of some [[Ascomycota]] and woody or leathery fruitbodies of some [[Basidiomycota]], depending upon the context of the usage. Usually forms deviating from the standard form have more specific names, such as [[puffball]]s, [[stinkhorn]], [[morel]]s, etc. and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called [[agaric]]s, in reference to their similarity to ''[[Agaricus]]'' or placement in the order [[Agaricales]]. By extension, ''mushroom'' can also designate the entire fungus when in culture or when referring to the whole [[thallus]] (called a [[mycelium]]) of species forming fruitbodies called mushrooms.
[[Image:Amanita muscaria (fly agaric).JPG|right|thumb|250px|The mushroom ''[[Amanita muscaria]]'', commonly known as "fly agaric".]]
== Mushrooms vs. Toadstools ==
The terms "mushrooms" and "toadstools" go back centuries, and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application, except to say that the term "toadstool" was generally, but not exclusively, applied to poisonous fungi. For an example of early usage see Badham (1863[http://freespace.virgin.net/mikea.walton/badham/badcov.htm]). Reference was made to "tadstoles", "frogstooles", "frogge stoles", "tadstooles", "tode stoles", "toodys hatte", "toadstoole", "paddockstool", "puddockstool", "paddocstol", "toadstoole", and "paddockstooles" from 1398-1597, sometimes synonymous with "mushrom", "mushrum", "muscheron", "mousheroms", "mussheron", or "musserouns" <ref name=Ramsbottom_1954>{{cite book | author=Ramsbottom J | title=Mushrooms & Toadstools. A study of the Activities of Fungi | year=1954 }}</ref>. The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from the French word "Mousseron" in reference to moss (mousse). There may have been a direct connection to ''[[toad]]s'' (in reference to poisonous properties) for toadstools. However, there is no clear-cut delimitation between edible and poisonous fungi, so that mushrooms may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable, and it makes no sense to not be able to use the term mushroom when stating there are "poisonous mushrooms" which would be an [[oxymoron]] statement if the term mushroom could not be applied to poisonous fungi. The term toadstool is nowadays used in story telling when referring to poisonous or suspect mushrooms. The classic example of a '''toadstool''' is ''[[Amanita muscaria]]''.
== To mushroom - mushrooming - to pop up like mushrooms ==
[[Image:Yellowmushrooms.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Yellow, flower pot mushrooms (''Leucocoprinus birnbaumii'') at various states of development.]]
Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several commonly used phrases in the [[English language]]. In fact all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies. The [[agaricus bisporus|cultivated mushroom]] as well as the common [[field mushroom]] initially form minute [[fruiting body]] initials referred to as the pin stage, because of their small size. Slightly expanded they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its [[mycelium]] and expand, mainly by inflating preformed [[cells]] that took several days to form in the primordia. Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms, like ''[[Parasola]] plicatilis'' ([http://collectivesource.com/fungi/newpages/Coprinus_plicatilis.html] formerly ''[[Coprinus]] plicatlis'') that literally appear overnight and may be gone by late afternoon on hot summer days after rainfall. The [[primordia]] form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the [[thatch]] of lawns and after heavy rainfall or [[dew]]y conditions, balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, then collapse. They '''"mushroom"''' to full size. '''"To mushroom"''' means to rapidly grow in size, or to sprout up rapidly, i.e., an organization may "mushroom" from national to international almost overnight. To '''"pop up like mushrooms"''' is of similar derivation, but also has a gang slang usage (see below).
The term '''"mushrooming"''' differs in that it generally refers to the act of gathering mushrooms, in the wild, as in the statement "I'm going mushrooming today." This is often shortened to '''"shrooming"''', which has yet another connotation, which is to '''"do mushrooms"'''. To "do mushrooms" or "shrooms" often refers to taking hallucinogenic mushrooms (see below).
Notably, not all mushrooms expand overnight. Many are very slow growing. Those types of mushrooms generally add tissue to their fruitbodies in different manners, such as growing from the edges, or inserting [[hyphae]].
== Classification of Mushrooms ==
[[Image:Mushroomy Log.JPG|thumb|left|400px|Examples of [[polypore]]s, mushrooms without stalks, on a log.]]
Typical mushrooms are the fruitbodies of members of the order [[Agaricales]], whose type genus is ''[[Agaricus]]'', and type species is the field mushroom, ''[[Agaricus campestris]]''. However, in modern molecular defined classifications, not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruitbodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders in the class [[Agaricomycetes]]. For example, [[Cantharellus|chanterelles]] are in the [[Cantharellales]], false chanterelles like ''[[Gomphus]]'' are in the [[Gomphales]], milk mushrooms (''[[Lactarius]]'') and russulas (''[[Russula]]'') as well as ''[[Lentinellus]]'' are in the [[Russulales]], while the tough leathery genera ''[[Lentinus]]'' and ''[[Panus]]'' are among the [[Polyporales]], but ''[[Neolentinus]]'' is in the [[Gloeophyllales]], and the little pin-mushroom genus, ''[[Rickenella]]'' along with similar genera are in the [[Hymenochaetales]].
Within the main body of mushrooms, in the [[Agaricales]], are such common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom (''[[Marasmius]]'' ''oreades''), [[shiitake]], [[enoki]], [[oyster mushrooms]], [[fly agaric]]s and other [[amanita]]s, [[magic mushrooms]] like species of ''[[Psilocybe]]'', [[Volvariella|paddy straw mushrooms]], [[Coprinus comatus|shaggy manes]], etc.
An atypical 'mushroom' is the [[Lobster mushroom]], which is a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored [[parasite|parasitized]] fruitbody of a ''[[Russula]]'' or [[Lactarius]] colored and deformed by the mycoparasitic [[Ascomycete]] ''[[Hypomyces lactifluorum]]''[http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/aug2001.html].
Other 'mushrooms' are nongilled and then the term is loosely used, so that it is difficult to give a full account of their classifications. Some 'mushrooms' have pores underneath (and are usually called [[bolete]]s), others have spines, such as the [[hedgehog mushroom]] and other [[tooth fungus|tooth fungi]], and so on. Mushroom has been used for [[polypore]]s, [[puffball]]s, [[jelly fungi]], [[coral fungi]], [[Bracket fungus|bracket fungi]], [[stinkhorn]]s, and [[cup fungus|cup fungi]]. Mushrooms and other fungi are studied by [[mycology|mycologist]]s. Thus, the term ''mushroom'' is more one of common application to [[macroscopic]] fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] meaning. There are approximately 14,000 described species of mushrooms<ref name=Chang>Chang, S., and Miles, P.G., ''Mushrooms, Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact'', CRC Press, 2004</ref>.
{{main|Sporocarp (fungi)|Basidiocarp|Ascocarp}}
[[Image:TallMushroom.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The relative sizes of the Cap ([[pileus]]) and Stalk ([[stipe (mycology)|stipe]]) vary widely.]]
=== Identification of Mushrooms ===
Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are [[Basidiomycetes]] and gilled. Their spores, called [[basidiospore]]s, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level the basidiospores are shot off of [[basidia]] but then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side down, usually overnight a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruitbody is sporulating). The color of the powdery print (which is called a [[spore print]]) has been used to help classify mushrooms, hence is used to help identify them. Spore print colors range from white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, cream, and almost never blue or green or red.
While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to [[mediaeval]] and [[Victorian]] era combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors, tastes, shades of colors, and habitats and habit and season must, and are, all considered by mycologists, amateur and professional alike. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carry their own hazards because of poisons and [[allergens]]. Chemical spot tests are also used for some genera.
In general, identification to [[genus]] can often be accomplished in the field using a local mushroom guide. Identification to [[species]], however, requires more effort; one must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure and only the latter can provide certain characters needed for the identification of the species. However. over mature specimens loose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spored prints.
== Human use ==
[[Image:ChampignonMushroom.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[button mushroom]] (''Agaricus bisporus''), one of the most widely cultivated mushrooms in the world.]]
{{see|Ethnomycology}}
=== Edible mushrooms ===
{{main|Edible mushrooms|Mushroom hunting}}
[[Edible mushroom]]s are used extensively in [[cooking]], in many [[cuisine]]s (notably [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], [[European]] and [[Japanese food|Japanese]]). Though commonly thought to contain little nutritional value, many varieties of mushrooms are high in fiber and protein, and provide vitamins such as [[thiamine]] (B<sub>1</sub>), [[riboflavin]] (B<sub>2</sub>), [[niacin]] (B<sub>3</sub>), [[biotin]] (B<sub>7</sub>), [[cyanocobalamin|cobalamins]] (B<sub>12</sub>) and [[ascorbic acid]] (C), as well as minerals, including [[iron]], [[selenium]], [[potassium]] and [[phosphorus]]. Mushrooms have been gaining a higher profile for containing antioxidants Ergothioneine and Selenium.
Many of the varieties of mushrooms that are sold in local supermarkets, have been commercially grown on mushroom farms. These mushrooms are safe to eat because they are grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Some of the varieties that are grown commercially include: whites, [[crimini]], [[portabello mushroom|portabello]], [[shiitake]], [[oyster mushroom|oyster]] and [[enoki]].
There are a number of species of mushrooms that are [[poison]]ous, and although some may resemble edible varieties, eating them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild can be risky and a practice not to be undertaken by individuals not knowledgeable in mushroom identification. The problem is that separating edible from poisonous species depends upon the application of only a few easily recognizable traits - but there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms could be identified. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as [[mushroom hunting]], or simply "mushrooming".
=== Toxic mushrooms ===
{{main|Mushroom poisoning}}
[[Image:Amanita pantherina 1.JPG|left|250px|thumb|The [[Panther cap]] (''Amanita pantherina''), a toxic mushroom]]
Of central interest with respect to chemical properties of mushrooms is the fact that many species produce [[secondary metabolites]] that render them toxic, mind-altering, or even [[bioluminescence|bioluminescent]]. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit (see [[emetic]]s) the meal or avoid consumption altogether.
=== Psychoactive mushrooms ===
{{main|Psychedelic mushrooms}}
[[Psilocybin]] mushrooms possess [[psychopharmacology|psychedelic properties]]. They are commonly known as "magic mushrooms" or "shrooms", and are available in [[smart shop]]s in many parts of the world, though some countries have outlawed their sale. A number of other mushrooms are eaten for their psychoactive effects, such as [[Amanita muscaria|fly agaric]], which is used for [[shaman]]ic purposes by tribes in northeast [[Siberia]]. They have also been used in the West to potentiate, or increase, religious experiences. Because of their psychoactive properties, some mushrooms have played a role in native medicine, where they have been used to affect mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the [[Velada]] ceremony. A representative figure of traditional mushroom use is the [[shaman]], [[curandera]] (priest-healer), [[Maria Sabina]].
=== Medicinal mushrooms ===
Currently, many species of mushrooms and fungi utilized as folk medicines for thousands of years are under intense study by [[ethnobotanist]]s and medical researchers. [[Hen of the woods|Maitake]], [[shiitake]], and [[reishi]] are prominent among those being researched for their potential anti-[[cancer]], anti-[[virus|viral]], and/or immunity-enhancement properties. [[Psilocybin]], originally an extract of certain psychedelic mushrooms, is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from mental disease, such as [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]]. Minute amounts have been reported to stop [[cluster headache|cluster]] and [[migraine headache]]s{{Fact|date=April 2007}}.
=== Other uses ===
Mushrooms can be also used for [[dyeing]] [[wool]] and other natural fibers. The [[chromophore]]s of mushrooms are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic [[dye]]s the mushrooms were the primary sources on dyeing textiles. This technique has survived in Finland, and many [[historical reenactment|Middle Ages re-enactors]] have revived the skill again{{Fact|date=April 2007}}.
Some fungi, types of [[polypore]]s, loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as [[tinder fungus|tinder fungi]]). [[Ötzi the Iceman]] was found carrying such fungi. Mushrooms, and other [[fungi]], will likely play an increasingly important role in the development of effective biological remediation and filtration technologies. [http://www.USPTO.gov The US Patent and Trademark office]can be searched for patents related to the latest developments in [[mycoremediation]] and [[mycofiltration]].
== Trivia ==
{{Trivia|date=June 2007}}
* The [[slang]] term "mushrooms" is a gang related term [http://popcenter.org/problems/Supplemental_Material/gun_violence/Corbett_2002.pdf]for victims accidentally shot as collateral damage simply because they popped up suddenly, as do fungal mushrooms<ref name=Sherman_1989>{{cite journal | author=Sherman LW et al | title= Stray bullets and “mushrooms”: Random shootings of bystanders in four cities, 1977–1988 | journal=J. Quantitative Criminology | year=1989 | pages=297-316 | volume=5(4) }}</ref>.
* [[Mushroom management]] refers to unfair corporate policy (see [[anti-pattern]]s). ''The corporate treats their employees like mushrooms: they are kept in dark, they are shoveled with manure, and once they have grown big enough, their heads are cut off.''
* A [[Mushroom cloth]] is a specially selected piece of fabric whose abrasive properties are particularly useful for removing the outer layer (and soil) from edible mushrooms.
==References==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* ''All That the Rain Promises, and More'' (1991) ISBN 0-89815-388-3
* ''Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms'' (2000) ISBN 1-58008-175-4
* ''Mushroom Cultivator: A Practical Guide to Growing Mushrooms at Home'' (1983) ISBN 0-9610798-0-0
* ''Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact" (2004) ISBN 0-8493-1043-1
* '' Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Will Save The World (2005) ISBN 1-58008-579-2
* ''Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi'' (1986) ISBN 0-89815-169-4
* ''Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation'' (2004) ISBN 0-932551-64-5
* ''Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World'' (1996) ISBN 0-89815-839-7
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}} {{Commons|Mushrooms}} {{Cookbook|Mushroom}}
=== Wild mushrooms===
* [http://www.mushroomexpert.com/ Mushroom Expert]
* [http://www.mykoweb.com/ MykoWeb]
* [http://mushroomobserver.org/ Mushroom Observer] (All images are made available under a [[Creative Commons]] license.)
* [http://www.namyco.org/ North American Mycological Association]
* [http://mushrooms.simons-rock.edu/ An Aid to Mushroom Identification], ''[[Simon's Rock College]]''.
* [http://www.picturesgroup.com/QuickGal.php?album=Wild+Mushrooms/ PicturesGroup Mushroom gallery]
* [http://www.rogersmushrooms.com/ Roger Phillip's photographic guide]
===Cultivated mushrooms===
* [http://www.mushroomcouncil.org/ Mushroom Council]
* [http://www.mushroominfo.com/ Mushroom Info] – consumer info site
* [http://www.americanmushroom.org/index.htm The American Mushroom Institute]
* [http://www.mushrooms.ca/ Mushrooms Canada]
* [http://www.mushroom-uk.com/ Mushroom Bureau]
* [http://www.mushrooms.net.au/ Australian Mushroom Growers Association]
* [http://www.oz-mushrooms.com.au/ Australian Mushroom Industry] – site index
* [http://www.mushroomgrowers.co.nz/index.htm Commercial Mushroom Growers Federation NZ Ltd]
* [http://www.ugandamushroomassociation.bravehost.com/ Uganda Mushroom Growers]
* [http://www.mushroombusiness.com/ Mushroom Business Information Center]
=== Research related ===
* [http://www.mushworld.com/home/default-eng.htm MushWorld]
* [http://www.isms.biz/ International Society for Mushroom Science]
* [http://pnwfungi.org/ Pacific Northwest Fungi Online Journal]
* [http://www.iq.usp.br/wwwdocentes/stevani/ Fungi Bioluminescence Laboratory]
=== Other ===
* [http://www.allfiberarts.com/library/mushrooms/index.htm Dyeing with mushroom-derived pigment]
[[Category:Fungi]]