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{{Otheruses4|the herb sometimes known as wolfsbane|other uses|Wolfsbane}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Monkshood
| image = Aconitum variegatum 110807f.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Aconitum variegatum''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Ranunculales]]
| familia = [[Ranunculaceae]]
| genus = '''''Aconitum'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]], 1753
| subdivision_ranks = Species| subdivision = ''[[#Species|See below]]''
}}
'''''Aconitum''''' (''[[Syllable stress of Botanical Latin|A-co-ní-tum]]''), known as '''aconite''', '''monkshood''', or '''wolfsbane''', is a [[genus]] of flowering [[plant]] belonging to the buttercup family ([[Ranunculaceae]]). There are over 250 [[species]] of ''Aconitum''.
==Overview==
These herbaceous [[perennial plant]]s are chiefly natives of the mountainous parts of the northern hemisphere, growing in moisture retentive but well draining [[soil]]s on mountain meadows. Their [[green|dark green]] [[Leaf|leaves]] lack stipules. They are palmate or deeply palmately lobed with 5–7 segments. Each segment again is 3-lobed with coarse sharp teeth. The leaves have a spiral or alternate arrangement. The lower leaves have long petioles.
These are handsome plants, the tall, erect [[Plant stem|stem]] being crowned by [[raceme]]s of large and eye-catching [[blue]], [[purple]], [[white]], [[yellow]] or [[pink]] zygomorphic [[flower]]s with numerous [[stamen]]s. They are distinguishable by having one of the five petaloid [[sepal]]s (the posterior one), called the galea, in the form of a cylindrical helmet; hence the English name monkshood. There are 2–10 [[petal]]s, in the form of nectaries. The two upper petals are large. They are placed under the hood of the calyx and are supported on long stalks. They have a hollow spur at their apex, containing the [[nectar (plant)|nectar]]. The other petals are small and scale like or non forming. The 3–5 [[carpel]]s are partially fused at the base.
The [[fruit]] is a [[Follicle (fruit)|follicle]].
==Species==
{|
|- valign=top
|
* ''[[Aconitum ajanense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum albo-violaceum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum altaicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum ambiguum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum angusticassidatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum anthora]]'' (Yellow Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum anthoroideum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum apetalum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum axilliflorum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum baburinii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum baicalense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum barbatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum besserianum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum biflorum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum bucovinense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum burnatii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum carmichaelii]]'' (Carmichael's Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum charkeviczii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum chasmanthum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum cochleare]]''
* ''[[Aconitum columbianum]]'' (Western Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum confertiflorum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum consanguineum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum coreanum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum crassifolium]]''
* ''[[Aconitum cymbulatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum decipiens]]''
* ''[[Aconitum degenii]]'' (syn. ''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''paniculatum'')
* ''[[Aconitum delphinifolium]]'' (Larkspurleaf Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum desoulavyi]]''
* ''[[Aconitum ferox]]'' (Indian Aconite)
* ''[[Aconitum firmum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum fischeri]]'' (Fischer Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum flerovii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum gigas]]''
* ''[[Aconitum gracile]]'' (synonym of ''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'')
* ''[[Aconitum helenae]]''
* ''[[Aconitum hosteanum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum infectum]]'' : Arizona Monkshood
* ''[[Aconitum jacquinii]]'' (synonym of ''A. anthora'')
* ''[[Aconitum jaluense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum jenisseense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum karafutense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum karakolicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum kirinense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum krylovii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum kunasilense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum kurilense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum kusnezoffii]]'' : Kusnezoff Monkshood
* ''[[Aconitum kuzenevae]]''
* ''[[Aconitum lasiostomum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum leucostomum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum longiracemosum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum lycoctonum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum macrorhynchum]]''
|
* ''[[Aconitum maximum]]'' (Kamchatka Aconite)
* ''[[Aconitum miyabei]]''
* ''[[Aconitum moldavicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum montibaicalense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum nanum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum napellus]]'' (Monkshood; type species)
* ''[[Aconitum nasutum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum nemorum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum neosachalinense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum noveboracense]]'' (Northern Blue Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum ochotense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum orientale]]''
* ''[[Aconitum paniculatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum paradoxum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum pascoi]]''
* ''[[Aconitum pavlovae]]''
* ''[[Aconitum pilipes]]''
* ''[[Aconitum plicatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum podolicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum productum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum pseudokusnezowii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum puchonroenicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum raddeanum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum ranunculoides]]''
* ''[[Aconitum reclinatum]]'' (Trailing White Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum rogoviczii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum romanicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum rotundifolium]]''
* ''[[Aconitum rubicundum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sachalinense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sajanense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum saxatile]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sczukinii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum septentrionale]]''
* ''[[Aconitum seravschanicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sichotense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum smirnovii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum soongaricum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum stoloniferum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum stubendorffii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum subalpinum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum subglandulosum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum subvillosum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sukaczevii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum taigicola]]''
* ''[[Aconitum talassicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum tanguticum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum tauricum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum turczaninowii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum umbrosum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum uncinatum]]'' (Southern Blue Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum variegatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum volubile]]''
* ''[[Aconitum vulparia]]'' (Wolfsbane)
* ''[[Aconitum woroschilovii]]''
|}
=== Natural hybrids ===
* ''Aconitum × austriacum''
* ''Aconitum × cammarum''
* ''Aconitum × hebegynum''
* ''Aconitum × oenipontanum'' (''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'' × ssp. ''paniculatum'')
* ''Aconitum × pilosiusculum''
* ''Aconitum × platanifolium'' (''A. lycoctonum'' ssp. ''neapolitanum'' × ssp. ''vulparia'')
* ''Aconitum × zahlbruckneri'' (''A. napellus'' ssp. ''vulgare'' × ''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'')
==Uses==
The most common plant in this genus, ''Aconitum napellus'' (the Common Monkshood) was considered to be of therapeutic and toxicological importance. Its roots have occasionally been mistaken for [[horseradish]]. It has a short underground stem, from which dark-colored tapering roots descend. The crown or upper portion of the root gives rise to new plants. When touched to one's lip, the juice of the aconite root produces a feeling of numbness and tingling. This plant is used as a food plant by some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Dot Moth]], [[Engrailed|The Engrailed]], [[Mouse Moth]], [[Wormwood Pug]], and [[Yellow-tail]].
The roots of ''Aconitum ferox'' supply the [[India]]n ([[Nepal]]) poison called ''bikh'', ''bish'', or ''nabee''. It contains large quantities of the alkaloid [[pseudaconitine]], which is a deadly [[poison]]. ''Aconitum palmatum'' yields another of the bikh poisons. The root of ''Aconitum luridum'', of the [[Himalaya]], is said to be as virulent as that of ''A. ferox'' or ''A. napellus''.
Several species of Aconitum have been used as arrow poisons. The [[Minaro]] in [[Ladakh]] use ''A. napellus'' on their arrows to hunt [[ibex]], while the [[Ainu]]s in Japan used a species of Aconitum to hunt [[bear]].<ref>Peissel, Michel. 1984. ''The Ants’ Gold. The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas''. London, Harvill Press, pp. 99-100.</ref> The Chinese also used Aconitum poisons both for hunting,<ref>Sung, Ying-hsing. ''T’ien kung k’ai wu''. Sung Ying-hsing. 1637. Published as ''Chinese Technology in the seventeenth century''. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York. Dover Publications, p. 267.</ref> and for warfare.<ref>Chavannes, Édouard. “Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch’ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K’in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.”. 1906. ''T’oung pao'' 7, pp. 226-227.</ref>
Many species of ''Aconitum'' are cultivated in gardens, having either blue or yellow flowers. ''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (Alpine wolfsbane), is a yellow-flowered species common in the [[Alps]] of [[Switzerland]]. As garden plants the aconites are very ornamental, hardy [[perennial plant]]s. They thrive well in any ordinary garden soil, and will grow beneath the shade of trees. They are easily propagated by divisions of the root or by seeds; care should be taken not to leave pieces of the root where [[livestock]] might eat them, owing to their poisonous character.
Aconite has been ascribed with supernatural powers relating to [[werewolf|werewolves]] and other [[lycanthropy|lycanthropes]], either to repel them, relating to aconite's use in poisoning wolves and other animals, or in some way induce their lycanthropic condition, as aconite was often an important ingredient in witches' magic ointments. In folklore, Aconite was also said to make a person into a werewolf if it is worn, smelled, or eaten. They are also said to kill werewolves if they wear, smell, or eat aconite.
[[Canada|Canadian]] film actor [[Andre Noble]] died of aconitine poisoning on [[July 30]], [[2004]], after accidentally ingesting it.
Aconite was reportedly found in toxicology samples from the former Pakistan cricket coach Bob Woolmer, but his death was later confirmed of natural causes<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/6745589.stm]</ref>.
Aconite have also been known under names such as wolfsbane, leopard's bane, women's bane, Devil's helmet or blue rocket.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4113983]</ref>
==Pharmacology of Aconite and Aconitine==
Aconite has long been used in the traditional medicine of India and China. In [[Ayurveda]] the herb is used to increase pitta and to enhance penetration in small doses. However more frequently the herb is detoxified according to the [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]] process and studies, cited in the detoxification section below show that it no longer possesses active toxicity. It is used in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] as a treatment for [[Yang]] deficiency, "coldness", general debilitation. The herb is considered hot and toxic. It is prepared in extremely small prepared doses. More frequently ginger processed aconite, of lower toxicity, "fu zi" is used. Aconite is one ingredient of [[Tribhuvankirti]], an Ayurvedic preparation for treating a "cold in the head" and fever.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=1993;volume=39;issue=4;spage=179;epage=82,182a;aulast=Thatte|author=Thatte UM, Rege NN, Phatak SD, Dahanukar SA|title=The flip side of Ayurveda|journal=Journal of postgraduate medicine|year=1993|volume=39|issue=4|pages=179-82}}</ref> Aconite was mixed with [[patrinia]] and [[coix]], in a famous treatment for [[appendicitis]] described in a formula from the [[Jingui Yaolue]] (ca. 220 A.D.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itmonline.org/arts/valerian.htm|title=VALERIAN AND NARDOSTACHYS}}</ref> Aconite was also described in Greek and Roman medicine by [[Theophrastus]], [[Dioscorides]], and [[Pliny the Elder]], who most likely prescribed the Alpine species [[Aconitum lycoctonum]]. The herb was cultivated widely in Europe, probably reaching England before the tenth century, where it was farmed with some difficulty, but came to be widely valued as an [[anodyne]], [[diuretic]], and [[diaphoretic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/aconi007.html|title=A Modern Herbal}}</ref> In the nineteenth century much aconite was imported from China, Japan, Fiji, and Tonga, with a number of species used to manufacture alkaloids of varying potency but generally similar effect, most often used externally and rarely internally. Effects of different preparations were standardized by testing on [[guinea pig]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/journals/ajp1881/09-gleanings.html|title=Gleanings in Materia Medica|author=John M. Maisch, M.D.|volume=53|year=1881}}</ref>
In Western medicine preparations of aconite were used until just after the middle of the 20th century, but it is no longer employed as it has been replaced by safer and more effective drugs and treatments. The 1911 British Pharmaceutical Codex regarded the medical uses and toxicity of aconite root or leaves to be virtually identical to that of purified [[aconitine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/bpc1911/aconitum-nape.html|title=The British Pharmaceutical Codex|year=1911}}</ref> Aconite first stimulates and later paralyses the nerves of pain, touch, and temperature if applied to the skin or to a mucous membrane; the initial tingling therefore gives place to a long-continued anaesthetic action. Great caution was required, as abraded skin could absorb a dangerous dose of the drug, and merely tasting some of the concentrated preparations available could be fatal. The local anaesthesia of peripheral nerves can be attributed to at least eleven alkaloids with varying potency and stability.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Fundam Clin Pharmacol|date=2004-04|volume=18|issue=2|pages=157-61|title=The local anesthetic activity of Aconitum alkaloids can be explained by their structural properties: a QSAR analysis|author=Bello-Ramírez AM, Nava-Ocampo AA|pmid=15066129}}</ref> External uses of aconite included treatment of ordinary facial or [[trigeminal neuralgia]], [[rheumatism]], and dental [[periostitis]].
Internal uses were also pursued, to slow the pulse, as a sedative in pericarditis and heart palpitations, and well diluted as a mild [[diaphoretic]], or to reduce feverishness in treatment of colds, pneumonia, quinsy, laryngitis, croup, and asthma due to exposure. Taken internally, aconite acts very notably on the circulation, the respiration, and the nervous system. The pulse is slowed, the number of beats per minute being actually reduced, under considerable doses, to forty, or even thirty, per minute. The blood-pressure synchronously falls, and the heart is arrested in [[diastole]]. Immediately before arrest, the heart may beat much faster than normally, though with extreme irregularity, and in the lower animals the auricles may be observed occasionally to miss a beat, as in poisoning by [[veratrine]] and [[colchicum]]. The action of aconitine on the circulation is due to an initial stimulation of the cardio-inhibitory centre in the [[medulla oblongata]] (at the root of the [[vagus nerve]]s), and later to a directly toxic influence on the nerve-ganglia and muscular fibres of the heart itself. The fall in blood-pressure is not due to any direct influence on the vessels. The respiration becomes slower owing to a paralytic action on the respiratory centre and, in warm-blooded animals, death is due to this action, the respiration being arrested before the action of the heart. Aconite further depresses the activity of all nerve-terminals, the sensory being affected before the motor. In small doses, it therefore tends to relieve pain, if this is present. The activity of the spinal cord is similarly depressed. The pupil is at first contracted, and afterwards dilated. The [[telencephalon|cerebrum]] is totally unaffected by aconite, consciousness and the intelligence remaining normal to the last. The [[antipyretic]] action which considerable doses of aconite display is not specific but is the result of its influence on the circulation and respiration and of its slight diaphoretic action.
====Homeopathic therapeutics====
Homeopathic preparations of aconite are used for complaints that begin after a fright or sudden shocking events and are used in subtoxic, [[succussed]] doses. <ref>{{cite book
| last = Morrsion, MD
| first = Roger
| title = Desktop guide to keynotes and comfirmatory symptoms
| publisher =Hahnemann Clinic Publishing
| date = 1993
| location =Grass Valley, CA
| pages = 3-6
| ISBN =0-9635368-0-X}}
</ref>.
===Toxicology===
In a few minutes after the introduction of a poisonous dose of aconite, marked symptoms supervene. The initial signs of poisoning are referable to the [[alimentary]] canal. There is a sensation of burning, tingling, and numbness in the mouth, and of burning in the abdomen. Death usually supervenes before a numbing effect on the [[intestine]] can be observed. After about an hour, there is severe vomiting. Much motor weakness and cutaneous sensations similar to those above described soon follow. The pulse and respiration steadily fail, death occurring from asphyxia. As in [[strychnine]] poisoning, the patient is conscious and clear-minded to the last. The only post-mortem signs are those of [[asphyxia]]. The treatment is to empty the stomach by tube or by a non-depressant [[emetic]]. The physiological antidotes are [[atropine]] and [[digitalis]] or [[strophanthin]], which should be injected subcutaneously in maximal doses. [[Alcohol]], [[strychnine]], and warmth must also be employed.
The above description of poisoning is characteristic of an oral administration. It should however be noted that aconitine may be easily absorbed through the skin, and poisoning may occur through this route simply by picking the leaves without the use of gloves; the toxin in the sap is absorbed through the skin. From practical experience, the sap oozing from eleven picked leaves will cause cardiac symptoms for a couple of hours. In this event, there will be no gastrointestinal effects. Tingling will however start at the point of absorption, and extend up the arm to the shoulder, after which the heart will start to be affected. The tingling will be followed by numbness—it is fairly unpleasant. As remarked above, atropine is an antidote. Atropine is a constituent of [[Deadly nightshade|Belladonna]].
Aconitine is a potent neurotoxin that blocks [[tetrodotoxin]]-sensitive sodium channels. Pretreatment with [[barakol]]—10 mg/kg [[intravenous|IV]] the compound is isolated from the leaves of ''Cassia siamea Lam''—reduces the incidence of aconitine-induced ventricular fibrillation and ventricular [[tachycardia]], as well as mortality. 5 μg/kg IV of tetrodotoxin also had the same effect. The protective effects of barakol are probably due to the prevention of intracellular sodium ion accumulation.
Aconite was reported by the ''Sunday Mirror'' to have been used as poison in the murder of Pakistan cricket coach, [[Bob Woolmer]] during the [[2007 Cricket World Cup]]. However there is now evidence that Bob Woolmer was not actually murdered.<ref>[http://content-nz.cricinfo.com/woolmer/content/current/story/288539.html]</ref>
===Detoxification===
There are methods of processing aconite to reduce toxicity in both [[Chinese medicine]] and [[Ayurveda]]. In Chinese medicine, the traditional [[pao zhi]] or preparation of aconite is to steam with [[ginger]] in a fairly elaborate procedure. Due to the variable levels of toxicity in any given sample of the dried herb, there are still issues with using it. Most but not all cases of aconite toxicity in Taiwan were due to the consumption of unprocessed aconite.<ref>[http://oneearthherbs.squarespace.com/safety-regulation/] Tilotson, Alan,''Safety and Regulation''</ref><ref>Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition by Dan Bensky, Steven Clavey, Erich Stoger, and Andrew Gamble (Hardcover - Sep 2004)</ref>
According to an article by the Indian scientists Thorat and Dahanukar, "Crude aconite is an extremely lethal substance. However, the science of Ayurveda looks upon aconite as a therapeutic entity. Crude aconite is always processed i.e. it undergoes 'samskaras' before being utilized in the Ayurvedic formulations. This study was undertaken in mice, to ascertain whether 'processed' aconite is less toxic as compared to the crude or unprocessed one. It was seen that crude aconite was significantly toxic to mice (100% mortality at a dose of 2.6 mg/mouse) whereas the fully processed aconite was absolutely non-toxic (no mortality at a dose even 8 times as high as that of crude aconite). Further, all the steps in the processing were essential for complete detoxification" <ref>Thorat S,Dahanukar S. ''Can We Dispense With Ayurvedic Samskaras? ''J Postgrad Med. 1991 Jul;37(3):157-9., 1991)</ref>
==''Aconitum'' in literature and film==
[[Image:Aconitum-noveboracense01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Northern Blue Monkshood (''Aconitum noveboracense'')]]
''Aconitum'' features in literature in a number of instances:
*In [[Greek mythology]], [[Medea]] attempted to poison [[Theseus]] with a cup of wine poisoned with wolfsbane. However Aegeus his father interceded when he discerned his identity.<ref name="Graves333">{{cite book |last=Graves |first=R |authorlink=Robert Graves |title=Greek Myths |year=1955|publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-001026-2|pages=332-336 |chapter=Theseus and Medea}}</ref>
*[[John Keats]], in his [[WikiSource:Ode on Melancholy|Ode on Melancholy]], writes:
<blockquote><blockquote>
No, no, go not to Lethe, neither twist
Wolf's bane, tight-rooted, for its poisonous wine
Nor suffer thy pale forehead to be kissed
By nightshade, ruby grape of Proserpine…
</blockquote></blockquote>
*Wolfsbane has often been associated with the werewolf legend, although its uses vary from bringing on [[lycanthropy]] to banishing it.
*''Aconitum'' plays a major role in the story "The Cardinal Napellus" by [[Gustav Meyrink]]. It is identified with religious beliefs and connected to the idea of fate.
*Wolfsbane is mentioned in one of the verses of the [[Wiccan Rede]]:
<blockquote><blockquote>[[Widdershins]] go when the Moon doth wane, An’ the Werewolf howls by the dread Wolfsbane.</blockquote></blockquote>
*A gypsy poem was written for the [[Lon Chaney, Jr.]] series of werewolf movies; it has been quoted in other werewolf movies as well:
<blockquote><blockquote>
Even those who are pure of heart,
and say their prayers at night,
can become a wolf, when the wolfsbane blooms
and the autumn moon is bright.
</blockquote></blockquote>
*In the third book of the [[Cadfael|Brother Cadfael]] series, ''Monk's Hood'', the herbalist Cadfael uses aconite as an ingredient in a liniment, which is later stolen and used to poison a victim.
*Wolfsbane in the [[Harry Potter series]] is a toxic plant that can be used as an ingredient in the [[Potions in Harry Potter#Wolfsbane Potion|Wolfsbane Potion]].
*An overdose of aconite was the method in which Rudolph Bloom, father of [[Leopold Bloom]] in [[James Joyce|James Joyce's]] [[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]], committed suicide.
<blockquote><blockquote>
Rudolph Bloom died... in consequence of an overdose of monkshood (aconite) selfadministered in the form of a neuralgic liniment...
</blockquote></blockquote>
*Aconite poisoning is used as a means of disposal in the [[Alistair Maclean]] novel ''Bear Island''.
*In [[Brian Jacques]]'s ''[[Redwall]]'' book ''[[Outcast of Redwall]]'', Veil the ferret uses wolfsbane to poison one of the residents of [[Redwall Abbey]].
* In the 1931 film ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'', Wolfsbane is used to keep Dracula out of households.
* Walfsbane plays a big role in the film, ''[[Ginger Snaps (film)|Ginger Snaps]]''.
* A controversial herbal remedy for cancer containing aconite was used by the character [[Kostoglotov]] in [[Alexandr Solzhenitsyn]]'s novel [[Cancer Ward]].
== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Aconitum napellus01.jpg|Unidentified Aconitum (possibly ''Aconitum carmichaelii'')
Image:Aconitum-reclinatum01.jpg|Trailing White Monkshood (''Aconitum reclinatum)''
Image:Aconitum-uncinatum01.jpg|Southern Blue Monkshood (''Aconitum uncinatum'')
</gallery>
== Notes ==
{{reflist}}
==References and external links==
{{commons|Aconitum}}
{{wikispecies|Aconitum}}
*{{1911}}
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/aconite/aconite.html James Grout: ''Aconite Poisoning''], part of the ''Encyclopædia Romana''
* [http://plants.usda.gov/java/imageGallery?txtparm=aconitum&category=sciname&familycategory=all&duration=all&growthhabit=all&origin=all&wetland=all&imagetype=all&artist=all©right=all&location=all&stateSelect=all&cite=all&viewsort=15&sort=sciname&submit.x=73&submit.y=9 Photographs of Aconite plants]
[[Category:Ranunculaceae]]
[[Category:Neurotoxins]]
[[Category:Poisonous plants]]
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Monkshood
| image = Aconitum variegatum 110807f.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Aconitum variegatum''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Ranunculales]]
| familia = [[Ranunculaceae]]
| genus = '''''Aconitum'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]], 1753
| subdivision_ranks = Species| subdivision = ''[[#Species|See below]]''
}}
'''''Aconitum''''' (''[[Syllable stress of Botanical Latin|A-co-ní-tum]]''), known as '''aconite''', '''monkshood''', or '''wolfsbane''', is a [[genus]] of flowering [[plant]] belonging to the buttercup family ([[Ranunculaceae]]). There are over 250 [[species]] of ''Aconitum''.
==Overview==
These herbaceous [[perennial plant]]s are chiefly natives of the mountainous parts of the northern hemisphere, growing in moisture retentive but well draining [[soil]]s on mountain meadows. Their [[green|dark green]] [[Leaf|leaves]] lack stipules. They are palmate or deeply palmately lobed with 5–7 segments. Each segment again is 3-lobed with coarse sharp teeth. The leaves have a spiral or alternate arrangement. The lower leaves have long petioles.
These are handsome plants, the tall, erect [[Plant stem|stem]] being crowned by [[raceme]]s of large and eye-catching [[blue]], [[purple]], [[white]], [[yellow]] or [[pink]] zygomorphic [[flower]]s with numerous [[stamen]]s. They are distinguishable by having one of the five petaloid [[sepal]]s (the posterior one), called the galea, in the form of a cylindrical helmet; hence the English name monkshood. There are 2–10 [[petal]]s, in the form of nectaries. The two upper petals are large. They are placed under the hood of the calyx and are supported on long stalks. They have a hollow spur at their apex, containing the [[nectar (plant)|nectar]]. The other petals are small and scale like or non forming. The 3–5 [[carpel]]s are partially fused at the base.
The [[fruit]] is a [[Follicle (fruit)|follicle]].
==Species==
{|
|- valign=top
|
* ''[[Aconitum ajanense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum albo-violaceum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum altaicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum ambiguum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum angusticassidatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum anthora]]'' (Yellow Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum anthoroideum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum apetalum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum axilliflorum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum baburinii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum baicalense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum barbatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum besserianum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum biflorum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum bucovinense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum burnatii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum carmichaelii]]'' (Carmichael's Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum charkeviczii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum chasmanthum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum cochleare]]''
* ''[[Aconitum columbianum]]'' (Western Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum confertiflorum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum consanguineum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum coreanum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum crassifolium]]''
* ''[[Aconitum cymbulatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum decipiens]]''
* ''[[Aconitum degenii]]'' (syn. ''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''paniculatum'')
* ''[[Aconitum delphinifolium]]'' (Larkspurleaf Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum desoulavyi]]''
* ''[[Aconitum ferox]]'' (Indian Aconite)
* ''[[Aconitum firmum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum fischeri]]'' (Fischer Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum flerovii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum gigas]]''
* ''[[Aconitum gracile]]'' (synonym of ''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'')
* ''[[Aconitum helenae]]''
* ''[[Aconitum hosteanum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum infectum]]'' : Arizona Monkshood
* ''[[Aconitum jacquinii]]'' (synonym of ''A. anthora'')
* ''[[Aconitum jaluense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum jenisseense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum karafutense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum karakolicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum kirinense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum krylovii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum kunasilense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum kurilense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum kusnezoffii]]'' : Kusnezoff Monkshood
* ''[[Aconitum kuzenevae]]''
* ''[[Aconitum lasiostomum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum leucostomum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum longiracemosum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum lycoctonum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum macrorhynchum]]''
|
* ''[[Aconitum maximum]]'' (Kamchatka Aconite)
* ''[[Aconitum miyabei]]''
* ''[[Aconitum moldavicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum montibaicalense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum nanum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum napellus]]'' (Monkshood; type species)
* ''[[Aconitum nasutum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum nemorum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum neosachalinense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum noveboracense]]'' (Northern Blue Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum ochotense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum orientale]]''
* ''[[Aconitum paniculatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum paradoxum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum pascoi]]''
* ''[[Aconitum pavlovae]]''
* ''[[Aconitum pilipes]]''
* ''[[Aconitum plicatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum podolicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum productum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum pseudokusnezowii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum puchonroenicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum raddeanum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum ranunculoides]]''
* ''[[Aconitum reclinatum]]'' (Trailing White Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum rogoviczii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum romanicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum rotundifolium]]''
* ''[[Aconitum rubicundum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sachalinense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sajanense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum saxatile]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sczukinii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum septentrionale]]''
* ''[[Aconitum seravschanicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sichotense]]''
* ''[[Aconitum smirnovii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum soongaricum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum stoloniferum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum stubendorffii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum subalpinum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum subglandulosum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum subvillosum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum sukaczevii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum taigicola]]''
* ''[[Aconitum talassicum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum tanguticum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum tauricum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum turczaninowii]]''
* ''[[Aconitum umbrosum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum uncinatum]]'' (Southern Blue Monkshood)
* ''[[Aconitum variegatum]]''
* ''[[Aconitum volubile]]''
* ''[[Aconitum vulparia]]'' (Wolfsbane)
* ''[[Aconitum woroschilovii]]''
|}
=== Natural hybrids ===
* ''Aconitum × austriacum''
* ''Aconitum × cammarum''
* ''Aconitum × hebegynum''
* ''Aconitum × oenipontanum'' (''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'' × ssp. ''paniculatum'')
* ''Aconitum × pilosiusculum''
* ''Aconitum × platanifolium'' (''A. lycoctonum'' ssp. ''neapolitanum'' × ssp. ''vulparia'')
* ''Aconitum × zahlbruckneri'' (''A. napellus'' ssp. ''vulgare'' × ''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'')
==Uses==
The most common plant in this genus, ''Aconitum napellus'' (the Common Monkshood) was considered to be of therapeutic and toxicological importance. Its roots have occasionally been mistaken for [[horseradish]]. It has a short underground stem, from which dark-colored tapering roots descend. The crown or upper portion of the root gives rise to new plants. When touched to one's lip, the juice of the aconite root produces a feeling of numbness and tingling. This plant is used as a food plant by some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Dot Moth]], [[Engrailed|The Engrailed]], [[Mouse Moth]], [[Wormwood Pug]], and [[Yellow-tail]].
The roots of ''Aconitum ferox'' supply the [[India]]n ([[Nepal]]) poison called ''bikh'', ''bish'', or ''nabee''. It contains large quantities of the alkaloid [[pseudaconitine]], which is a deadly [[poison]]. ''Aconitum palmatum'' yields another of the bikh poisons. The root of ''Aconitum luridum'', of the [[Himalaya]], is said to be as virulent as that of ''A. ferox'' or ''A. napellus''.
Several species of Aconitum have been used as arrow poisons. The [[Minaro]] in [[Ladakh]] use ''A. napellus'' on their arrows to hunt [[ibex]], while the [[Ainu]]s in Japan used a species of Aconitum to hunt [[bear]].<ref>Peissel, Michel. 1984. ''The Ants’ Gold. The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas''. London, Harvill Press, pp. 99-100.</ref> The Chinese also used Aconitum poisons both for hunting,<ref>Sung, Ying-hsing. ''T’ien kung k’ai wu''. Sung Ying-hsing. 1637. Published as ''Chinese Technology in the seventeenth century''. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York. Dover Publications, p. 267.</ref> and for warfare.<ref>Chavannes, Édouard. “Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch’ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K’in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.”. 1906. ''T’oung pao'' 7, pp. 226-227.</ref>
Many species of ''Aconitum'' are cultivated in gardens, having either blue or yellow flowers. ''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (Alpine wolfsbane), is a yellow-flowered species common in the [[Alps]] of [[Switzerland]]. As garden plants the aconites are very ornamental, hardy [[perennial plant]]s. They thrive well in any ordinary garden soil, and will grow beneath the shade of trees. They are easily propagated by divisions of the root or by seeds; care should be taken not to leave pieces of the root where [[livestock]] might eat them, owing to their poisonous character.
Aconite has been ascribed with supernatural powers relating to [[werewolf|werewolves]] and other [[lycanthropy|lycanthropes]], either to repel them, relating to aconite's use in poisoning wolves and other animals, or in some way induce their lycanthropic condition, as aconite was often an important ingredient in witches' magic ointments. In folklore, Aconite was also said to make a person into a werewolf if it is worn, smelled, or eaten. They are also said to kill werewolves if they wear, smell, or eat aconite.
[[Canada|Canadian]] film actor [[Andre Noble]] died of aconitine poisoning on [[July 30]], [[2004]], after accidentally ingesting it.
Aconite was reportedly found in toxicology samples from the former Pakistan cricket coach Bob Woolmer, but his death was later confirmed of natural causes<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/6745589.stm]</ref>.
Aconite have also been known under names such as wolfsbane, leopard's bane, women's bane, Devil's helmet or blue rocket.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4113983]</ref>
==Pharmacology of Aconite and Aconitine==
Aconite has long been used in the traditional medicine of India and China. In [[Ayurveda]] the herb is used to increase pitta and to enhance penetration in small doses. However more frequently the herb is detoxified according to the [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]] process and studies, cited in the detoxification section below show that it no longer possesses active toxicity. It is used in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] as a treatment for [[Yang]] deficiency, "coldness", general debilitation. The herb is considered hot and toxic. It is prepared in extremely small prepared doses. More frequently ginger processed aconite, of lower toxicity, "fu zi" is used. Aconite is one ingredient of [[Tribhuvankirti]], an Ayurvedic preparation for treating a "cold in the head" and fever.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=1993;volume=39;issue=4;spage=179;epage=82,182a;aulast=Thatte|author=Thatte UM, Rege NN, Phatak SD, Dahanukar SA|title=The flip side of Ayurveda|journal=Journal of postgraduate medicine|year=1993|volume=39|issue=4|pages=179-82}}</ref> Aconite was mixed with [[patrinia]] and [[coix]], in a famous treatment for [[appendicitis]] described in a formula from the [[Jingui Yaolue]] (ca. 220 A.D.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itmonline.org/arts/valerian.htm|title=VALERIAN AND NARDOSTACHYS}}</ref> Aconite was also described in Greek and Roman medicine by [[Theophrastus]], [[Dioscorides]], and [[Pliny the Elder]], who most likely prescribed the Alpine species [[Aconitum lycoctonum]]. The herb was cultivated widely in Europe, probably reaching England before the tenth century, where it was farmed with some difficulty, but came to be widely valued as an [[anodyne]], [[diuretic]], and [[diaphoretic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/aconi007.html|title=A Modern Herbal}}</ref> In the nineteenth century much aconite was imported from China, Japan, Fiji, and Tonga, with a number of species used to manufacture alkaloids of varying potency but generally similar effect, most often used externally and rarely internally. Effects of different preparations were standardized by testing on [[guinea pig]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/journals/ajp1881/09-gleanings.html|title=Gleanings in Materia Medica|author=John M. Maisch, M.D.|volume=53|year=1881}}</ref>
In Western medicine preparations of aconite were used until just after the middle of the 20th century, but it is no longer employed as it has been replaced by safer and more effective drugs and treatments. The 1911 British Pharmaceutical Codex regarded the medical uses and toxicity of aconite root or leaves to be virtually identical to that of purified [[aconitine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/bpc1911/aconitum-nape.html|title=The British Pharmaceutical Codex|year=1911}}</ref> Aconite first stimulates and later paralyses the nerves of pain, touch, and temperature if applied to the skin or to a mucous membrane; the initial tingling therefore gives place to a long-continued anaesthetic action. Great caution was required, as abraded skin could absorb a dangerous dose of the drug, and merely tasting some of the concentrated preparations available could be fatal. The local anaesthesia of peripheral nerves can be attributed to at least eleven alkaloids with varying potency and stability.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Fundam Clin Pharmacol|date=2004-04|volume=18|issue=2|pages=157-61|title=The local anesthetic activity of Aconitum alkaloids can be explained by their structural properties: a QSAR analysis|author=Bello-Ramírez AM, Nava-Ocampo AA|pmid=15066129}}</ref> External uses of aconite included treatment of ordinary facial or [[trigeminal neuralgia]], [[rheumatism]], and dental [[periostitis]].
Internal uses were also pursued, to slow the pulse, as a sedative in pericarditis and heart palpitations, and well diluted as a mild [[diaphoretic]], or to reduce feverishness in treatment of colds, pneumonia, quinsy, laryngitis, croup, and asthma due to exposure. Taken internally, aconite acts very notably on the circulation, the respiration, and the nervous system. The pulse is slowed, the number of beats per minute being actually reduced, under considerable doses, to forty, or even thirty, per minute. The blood-pressure synchronously falls, and the heart is arrested in [[diastole]]. Immediately before arrest, the heart may beat much faster than normally, though with extreme irregularity, and in the lower animals the auricles may be observed occasionally to miss a beat, as in poisoning by [[veratrine]] and [[colchicum]]. The action of aconitine on the circulation is due to an initial stimulation of the cardio-inhibitory centre in the [[medulla oblongata]] (at the root of the [[vagus nerve]]s), and later to a directly toxic influence on the nerve-ganglia and muscular fibres of the heart itself. The fall in blood-pressure is not due to any direct influence on the vessels. The respiration becomes slower owing to a paralytic action on the respiratory centre and, in warm-blooded animals, death is due to this action, the respiration being arrested before the action of the heart. Aconite further depresses the activity of all nerve-terminals, the sensory being affected before the motor. In small doses, it therefore tends to relieve pain, if this is present. The activity of the spinal cord is similarly depressed. The pupil is at first contracted, and afterwards dilated. The [[telencephalon|cerebrum]] is totally unaffected by aconite, consciousness and the intelligence remaining normal to the last. The [[antipyretic]] action which considerable doses of aconite display is not specific but is the result of its influence on the circulation and respiration and of its slight diaphoretic action.
====Homeopathic therapeutics====
Homeopathic preparations of aconite are used for complaints that begin after a fright or sudden shocking events and are used in subtoxic, [[succussed]] doses. <ref>{{cite book
| last = Morrsion, MD
| first = Roger
| title = Desktop guide to keynotes and comfirmatory symptoms
| publisher =Hahnemann Clinic Publishing
| date = 1993
| location =Grass Valley, CA
| pages = 3-6
| ISBN =0-9635368-0-X}}
</ref>.
===Toxicology===
In a few minutes after the introduction of a poisonous dose of aconite, marked symptoms supervene. The initial signs of poisoning are referable to the [[alimentary]] canal. There is a sensation of burning, tingling, and numbness in the mouth, and of burning in the abdomen. Death usually supervenes before a numbing effect on the [[intestine]] can be observed. After about an hour, there is severe vomiting. Much motor weakness and cutaneous sensations similar to those above described soon follow. The pulse and respiration steadily fail, death occurring from asphyxia. As in [[strychnine]] poisoning, the patient is conscious and clear-minded to the last. The only post-mortem signs are those of [[asphyxia]]. The treatment is to empty the stomach by tube or by a non-depressant [[emetic]]. The physiological antidotes are [[atropine]] and [[digitalis]] or [[strophanthin]], which should be injected subcutaneously in maximal doses. [[Alcohol]], [[strychnine]], and warmth must also be employed.
The above description of poisoning is characteristic of an oral administration. It should however be noted that aconitine may be easily absorbed through the skin, and poisoning may occur through this route simply by picking the leaves without the use of gloves; the toxin in the sap is absorbed through the skin. From practical experience, the sap oozing from eleven picked leaves will cause cardiac symptoms for a couple of hours. In this event, there will be no gastrointestinal effects. Tingling will however start at the point of absorption, and extend up the arm to the shoulder, after which the heart will start to be affected. The tingling will be followed by numbness—it is fairly unpleasant. As remarked above, atropine is an antidote. Atropine is a constituent of [[Deadly nightshade|Belladonna]].
Aconitine is a potent neurotoxin that blocks [[tetrodotoxin]]-sensitive sodium channels. Pretreatment with [[barakol]]—10 mg/kg [[intravenous|IV]] the compound is isolated from the leaves of ''Cassia siamea Lam''—reduces the incidence of aconitine-induced ventricular fibrillation and ventricular [[tachycardia]], as well as mortality. 5 μg/kg IV of tetrodotoxin also had the same effect. The protective effects of barakol are probably due to the prevention of intracellular sodium ion accumulation.
Aconite was reported by the ''Sunday Mirror'' to have been used as poison in the murder of Pakistan cricket coach, [[Bob Woolmer]] during the [[2007 Cricket World Cup]]. However there is now evidence that Bob Woolmer was not actually murdered.<ref>[http://content-nz.cricinfo.com/woolmer/content/current/story/288539.html]</ref>
===Detoxification===
There are methods of processing aconite to reduce toxicity in both [[Chinese medicine]] and [[Ayurveda]]. In Chinese medicine, the traditional [[pao zhi]] or preparation of aconite is to steam with [[ginger]] in a fairly elaborate procedure. Due to the variable levels of toxicity in any given sample of the dried herb, there are still issues with using it. Most but not all cases of aconite toxicity in Taiwan were due to the consumption of unprocessed aconite.<ref>[http://oneearthherbs.squarespace.com/safety-regulation/] Tilotson, Alan,''Safety and Regulation''</ref><ref>Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition by Dan Bensky, Steven Clavey, Erich Stoger, and Andrew Gamble (Hardcover - Sep 2004)</ref>
According to an article by the Indian scientists Thorat and Dahanukar, "Crude aconite is an extremely lethal substance. However, the science of Ayurveda looks upon aconite as a therapeutic entity. Crude aconite is always processed i.e. it undergoes 'samskaras' before being utilized in the Ayurvedic formulations. This study was undertaken in mice, to ascertain whether 'processed' aconite is less toxic as compared to the crude or unprocessed one. It was seen that crude aconite was significantly toxic to mice (100% mortality at a dose of 2.6 mg/mouse) whereas the fully processed aconite was absolutely non-toxic (no mortality at a dose even 8 times as high as that of crude aconite). Further, all the steps in the processing were essential for complete detoxification" <ref>Thorat S,Dahanukar S. ''Can We Dispense With Ayurvedic Samskaras? ''J Postgrad Med. 1991 Jul;37(3):157-9., 1991)</ref>
==''Aconitum'' in literature and film==
[[Image:Aconitum-noveboracense01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Northern Blue Monkshood (''Aconitum noveboracense'')]]
''Aconitum'' features in literature in a number of instances:
*In [[Greek mythology]], [[Medea]] attempted to poison [[Theseus]] with a cup of wine poisoned with wolfsbane. However Aegeus his father interceded when he discerned his identity.<ref name="Graves333">{{cite book |last=Graves |first=R |authorlink=Robert Graves |title=Greek Myths |year=1955|publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-001026-2|pages=332-336 |chapter=Theseus and Medea}}</ref>
*[[John Keats]], in his [[WikiSource:Ode on Melancholy|Ode on Melancholy]], writes:
<blockquote><blockquote>
No, no, go not to Lethe, neither twist
Wolf's bane, tight-rooted, for its poisonous wine
Nor suffer thy pale forehead to be kissed
By nightshade, ruby grape of Proserpine…
</blockquote></blockquote>
*Wolfsbane has often been associated with the werewolf legend, although its uses vary from bringing on [[lycanthropy]] to banishing it.
*''Aconitum'' plays a major role in the story "The Cardinal Napellus" by [[Gustav Meyrink]]. It is identified with religious beliefs and connected to the idea of fate.
*Wolfsbane is mentioned in one of the verses of the [[Wiccan Rede]]:
<blockquote><blockquote>[[Widdershins]] go when the Moon doth wane, An’ the Werewolf howls by the dread Wolfsbane.</blockquote></blockquote>
*A gypsy poem was written for the [[Lon Chaney, Jr.]] series of werewolf movies; it has been quoted in other werewolf movies as well:
<blockquote><blockquote>
Even those who are pure of heart,
and say their prayers at night,
can become a wolf, when the wolfsbane blooms
and the autumn moon is bright.
</blockquote></blockquote>
*In the third book of the [[Cadfael|Brother Cadfael]] series, ''Monk's Hood'', the herbalist Cadfael uses aconite as an ingredient in a liniment, which is later stolen and used to poison a victim.
*Wolfsbane in the [[Harry Potter series]] is a toxic plant that can be used as an ingredient in the [[Potions in Harry Potter#Wolfsbane Potion|Wolfsbane Potion]].
*An overdose of aconite was the method in which Rudolph Bloom, father of [[Leopold Bloom]] in [[James Joyce|James Joyce's]] [[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]], committed suicide.
<blockquote><blockquote>
Rudolph Bloom died... in consequence of an overdose of monkshood (aconite) selfadministered in the form of a neuralgic liniment...
</blockquote></blockquote>
*Aconite poisoning is used as a means of disposal in the [[Alistair Maclean]] novel ''Bear Island''.
*In [[Brian Jacques]]'s ''[[Redwall]]'' book ''[[Outcast of Redwall]]'', Veil the ferret uses wolfsbane to poison one of the residents of [[Redwall Abbey]].
* In the 1931 film ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'', Wolfsbane is used to keep Dracula out of households.
* Walfsbane plays a big role in the film, ''[[Ginger Snaps (film)|Ginger Snaps]]''.
* A controversial herbal remedy for cancer containing aconite was used by the character [[Kostoglotov]] in [[Alexandr Solzhenitsyn]]'s novel [[Cancer Ward]].
== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Aconitum napellus01.jpg|Unidentified Aconitum (possibly ''Aconitum carmichaelii'')
Image:Aconitum-reclinatum01.jpg|Trailing White Monkshood (''Aconitum reclinatum)''
Image:Aconitum-uncinatum01.jpg|Southern Blue Monkshood (''Aconitum uncinatum'')
</gallery>
== Notes ==
{{reflist}}
==References and external links==
{{commons|Aconitum}}
{{wikispecies|Aconitum}}
*{{1911}}
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/aconite/aconite.html James Grout: ''Aconite Poisoning''], part of the ''Encyclopædia Romana''
* [http://plants.usda.gov/java/imageGallery?txtparm=aconitum&category=sciname&familycategory=all&duration=all&growthhabit=all&origin=all&wetland=all&imagetype=all&artist=all©right=all&location=all&stateSelect=all&cite=all&viewsort=15&sort=sciname&submit.x=73&submit.y=9 Photographs of Aconite plants]
[[Category:Ranunculaceae]]
[[Category:Neurotoxins]]
[[Category:Poisonous plants]]
