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Grape (view source)

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|image_caption=Wine Grapes
 
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A '''grape''' (pronounced /ˈgreɪp/) is a non-[[Climacteric (botany)|climacteric]] [[fruit]] that grows on the [[Perennial plant|perennial]] and [[deciduous]] woody [[vine]]s of the [[genus]] ''[[Vitis]]''.  '''''Vitis''''' ('''grapevines''') is a genus of about 60 species of vining plants in the [[flowering plant]] family [[Vitaceae]].
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Grapes grow in clusters of 15 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange, and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape.
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Most grapes come from [[List of grape varieties|cultivars]] of ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:
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* ''[[Vitis labrusca]]'', the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including the [[concord (grape)|concord]] cultivar), sometimes used for wine, are native to the [[Eastern United States]] and [[Canada]].
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* ''[[Vitis riparia]]'', a wild vine of [[North America]], is sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. It is native to the entire [[Eastern U.S.]] and north to [[Quebec]].
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* ''[[Vitis rotundifolia]]'', the [[muscadine]]s, used for jams and wine, are native to the [[Southeastern United States]] from [[Delaware]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]].
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* ''[[Vitis amurensis]]'' is the most important Asian species.
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Table and wine grapes
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[[File:Wine grapes03.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Wine grapes on the vine]] Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make [[wine]] (wine grapes). While almost all of them belong to the same species, ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through [[selective breeding]]. [[Table grape]] cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit (see below) with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes is usually around 15% sugar by weight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wineloverspage.com/dibbern/grapetaste07.phtml|title=Wine Grapes and Grape-y Wines|accessdate=03/07/2010}}</ref>
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Seedless grapes
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Although grape seeds contain many nutrients, some consumers choose seedless grapes; seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetatively propagated]] by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using [[Plant tissue culture|tissue culture]] techniques.
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There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: [[Thompson Seedless]], [[Russian Seedless]], and [[Black Monukka]], all being cultivars of ''[[Vitis vinifera]]''. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Reliance and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of north-eastern United States and southern [[Ontario]].<ref>Reisch BI, Peterson DV, Martens M-H. [http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/faculty/reisch/bulletin/table/tabletext3.html "Seedless Grapes"], in "Table Grape Varieties for Cool Climates", Information Bulletin 234, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, retrieved December 30, 2008</ref>
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{{Inc|
 
{{Inc|
 
Vitis (classical Latin name). Vine. Grape. Vitaceae or Ampelideae. Tendril-climbers (some members of the genus Cissus erect) grown as ornamental vines but particularly for the edible fruits or grapes.
 
Vitis (classical Latin name). Vine. Grape. Vitaceae or Ampelideae. Tendril-climbers (some members of the genus Cissus erect) grown as ornamental vines but particularly for the edible fruits or grapes.
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North America is richest in species of Vitis (see the article Vitis). These species range from ocean to ocean and from the British possessions to the tropics. The species that has been most improved is Vitis Labrusca of the Atlantic slope, although it seems to possess less native merit than some of the southwestern species types. Of this species are the Concord and Catawba types. To some extent it has been hybridized with Vitis vinifera (as in Agawam, Lindley, Barry, and others of E. S. Rogers' varieties), and with native species. Already a number of the popular varieties represent such wide departures that they cannot be referred positively to any species. Of these, Delaware and Isabella are examples. The second most important species, in point of amelioration, is Vitis aestivalis, from which several of the best wine grapes have sprung. The post-oak grape (Vitis lincecumii, or V. aestivalis Var. lincecumii) of the Southwest, is one of the most promising species, and already has given excellent results in hybridization. The Muscadine (V. rotundifolia) of the South has given the Scuppernong and a few less known forms. Beyond these species, there are none which has given varieties of great commercial importance, although considerable has been done in improving them. Some of the best of the wild species are practically untouched; there is only a comparatively small area of our great country which has yet developed large interests in grape-growing: the grape-types of a century hence, therefore, may be expected to be very unlike the present- day varieties. For an extended sketch of American grape history, see Bailey, "Evolution of Our Native Fruits" (1898). The American grape literature is voluminous. More than fifty authors have written on the subject. Yet there is very little of this writing which catches the actual spirit of American" grape- growing; this fact, together with the technicality and diversity of the subject itself, makes it seem wise to devote considerable space to the grape in this Cyclopedia.
 
North America is richest in species of Vitis (see the article Vitis). These species range from ocean to ocean and from the British possessions to the tropics. The species that has been most improved is Vitis Labrusca of the Atlantic slope, although it seems to possess less native merit than some of the southwestern species types. Of this species are the Concord and Catawba types. To some extent it has been hybridized with Vitis vinifera (as in Agawam, Lindley, Barry, and others of E. S. Rogers' varieties), and with native species. Already a number of the popular varieties represent such wide departures that they cannot be referred positively to any species. Of these, Delaware and Isabella are examples. The second most important species, in point of amelioration, is Vitis aestivalis, from which several of the best wine grapes have sprung. The post-oak grape (Vitis lincecumii, or V. aestivalis Var. lincecumii) of the Southwest, is one of the most promising species, and already has given excellent results in hybridization. The Muscadine (V. rotundifolia) of the South has given the Scuppernong and a few less known forms. Beyond these species, there are none which has given varieties of great commercial importance, although considerable has been done in improving them. Some of the best of the wild species are practically untouched; there is only a comparatively small area of our great country which has yet developed large interests in grape-growing: the grape-types of a century hence, therefore, may be expected to be very unlike the present- day varieties. For an extended sketch of American grape history, see Bailey, "Evolution of Our Native Fruits" (1898). The American grape literature is voluminous. More than fifty authors have written on the subject. Yet there is very little of this writing which catches the actual spirit of American" grape- growing; this fact, together with the technicality and diversity of the subject itself, makes it seem wise to devote considerable space to the grape in this Cyclopedia.
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While the native grape was being ameliorated in the East, the Old World Vitis vinifera was becoming established on the Pacific slope. In fact, Vitis vinifera has there run wild. The phylloxera and mildew are not native there, and the climate better suits the species. The Pacific coast viticulture, therefore, is of the Old World kind.
      
We now know that the phylloxera or root-louse can be evaded when the vinifera grape is grafted on native or resistant stocks, and the mildew can be combated by fungicides. Of late years, therefore, new efforts have been made to grow the wine grape in the eastern states, and in the southern latitudes some of these experiments promised well for a time. However, so great attention is required to produce a satisfactory product as to discourage the growing of vinifera varieties in the open in the East. Vinifera types will always be special grapes in the East, adapted only to particular conditions, for it is not to be expected that they can compete with the more easily grown and cosmopolitan varieties of the native species. Under glass, however, the vinifera varieties thrive; and a special discussion is given herewith (page 1388) to this branch of the subject.
 
We now know that the phylloxera or root-louse can be evaded when the vinifera grape is grafted on native or resistant stocks, and the mildew can be combated by fungicides. Of late years, therefore, new efforts have been made to grow the wine grape in the eastern states, and in the southern latitudes some of these experiments promised well for a time. However, so great attention is required to produce a satisfactory product as to discourage the growing of vinifera varieties in the open in the East. Vinifera types will always be special grapes in the East, adapted only to particular conditions, for it is not to be expected that they can compete with the more easily grown and cosmopolitan varieties of the native species. Under glass, however, the vinifera varieties thrive; and a special discussion is given herewith (page 1388) to this branch of the subject.
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Many other insects and diseases prey upon the grape, but those mentioned above are widespread and may be considered as perhaps the standard parasites.  
 
Many other insects and diseases prey upon the grape, but those mentioned above are widespread and may be considered as perhaps the standard parasites.  
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Literature.
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The American book literature of the grape is nearly as large as that of all the tree-fruits combined. Probably 100 books, counting the various editions, have been published in North America since Adlum's volume in 1823 (see "Evolution of Our Native Fruits," pp. 117- 126). The earlier books were founded largely on European practices. The leading current works are: "Bush- berg's Descriptive Catalogue and Grape Growers' Manual;" Mitzky's "Our Native Grape;" Fuller's "Grape Culturist;" Husmann's "American Grape Growing and Wine Making." For the Pacific slope, Husmann's "Grape Culture and Wine Making in California," Wickson's "California Fruits," and Eisen's "Raisin Industry" are useful guides. Detailed discussions of pruning and methods of training are contained in "The Pruning-Book." A standard European monograph is Foex's "Cours Complet de Viticulture." The recent standard American works are Munson's "Foundations of American Grape Culture," and Hedrick's "Grapes of New York," which are notable contributions to horticultural literature. L H.B.
      
Grapes in the North (Canada).
 
Grapes in the North (Canada).
    
Any section in which grapes will thrive without winter protection may be said to be a commercial section. For home use they are grown far north by covering with earth or litter during the winter. When the leaves are falling or have fallen in autumn, the vines are pruned—fan system, with the old stalks very close to the ground, and laid flat upon the earth. Here they are left under their straw or earthy covering until danger of frost is past, the following spring, when the covering is removed and the canes tied to the wires. But. this is expensive and the method is not commercial. For market pur]x>ses, grapes are grown with one of two main objects in view: either for wine (sweet or fermented) or table and dessert purposes. The purpose determines the variety. Concords and varieties approaching it in type and quality are the choice for the former purpose, while for the latter the variety is determined by the season and the market demand. In the former case, also, the number of varieties is limited, while in the latter they are numerous, ranging from the earliest, Champion, to the latest, Vergennes, and intermediate varieties of all colors and grades.
 
Any section in which grapes will thrive without winter protection may be said to be a commercial section. For home use they are grown far north by covering with earth or litter during the winter. When the leaves are falling or have fallen in autumn, the vines are pruned—fan system, with the old stalks very close to the ground, and laid flat upon the earth. Here they are left under their straw or earthy covering until danger of frost is past, the following spring, when the covering is removed and the canes tied to the wires. But. this is expensive and the method is not commercial. For market pur]x>ses, grapes are grown with one of two main objects in view: either for wine (sweet or fermented) or table and dessert purposes. The purpose determines the variety. Concords and varieties approaching it in type and quality are the choice for the former purpose, while for the latter the variety is determined by the season and the market demand. In the former case, also, the number of varieties is limited, while in the latter they are numerous, ranging from the earliest, Champion, to the latest, Vergennes, and intermediate varieties of all colors and grades.
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Grapes, unlike peaches and cherries, are not subject to very great fluctuations in price and yield. They are comparatively steady in their returns, and. while never advertising themselves by enormous yields and profits, are ever pushing to the front in acreage, yield to the acre and importance. The acreage increase has been very rapid until now New York, the leading northern state of the United States, which thirty-five years ago had but a small acreage, today has more than 70,000 acres, and Ontario, the leading province of the Dominion, has approximately 14,000 acres. The rapid increase has not been because of high prices, but rather steady average prices from $18 to $30 a ton, delivered at the winery, or an equal price f.o.b. the shipping-station. The average yield has not been over two tons to the acre, but, under good conditions, with intelligent management, an average of four to six tons is not uncommon.
      
Soils and location.
 
Soils and location.
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Fertilizing is still done in a haphazard way. Some of the best men make a regular practice of mulching the roots with farmyard manure in the fall. Some apply no farmyard manure at all. The use of commercial fertilizer is still in the experimental stage. Its value is admitted but its use is not fully understood. On light and gravel soils some potash compounds are being used. On the deep alluvial soils some growers are using it in the form of wood-ashes rather than the prepared commercial product. Some bone-meal, at the rate of 300 to 600 pounds to the acre, is being used also. Some state profitable results from their methods; others think that with light applications of farmyard manure and thorough cultivation the commercial fertilizers are not required.
 
Fertilizing is still done in a haphazard way. Some of the best men make a regular practice of mulching the roots with farmyard manure in the fall. Some apply no farmyard manure at all. The use of commercial fertilizer is still in the experimental stage. Its value is admitted but its use is not fully understood. On light and gravel soils some potash compounds are being used. On the deep alluvial soils some growers are using it in the form of wood-ashes rather than the prepared commercial product. Some bone-meal, at the rate of 300 to 600 pounds to the acre, is being used also. Some state profitable results from their methods; others think that with light applications of farmyard manure and thorough cultivation the commercial fertilizers are not required.
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Harvesting and marketing.
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The cutting of the fruit is done for the most part by women and girls, who are usually paid according to the amount of work they do. In some cases they are paid from $1 to $1.25 a day, but 1 cent for an eight- to ten-pound basket is more satisfactory. Cutting starts as soon as the earliest grapes are ready for ——— the market. In Canada, Champions have of late years been the first variety to reach the wholesaler. This variety colors before it is really ripe and, though having a fair appearance in the baskets, is not really ripe. Sharp criticism is leading the growers to be more Cautious and to some extent drop the variety for the more satisfactory Campbell and Moore Early. These varieties are later, but please the purchaser. For wine purposes the fruit is left on the vines as long as possible so that it becomes fully matured. Grapes, unlike apples and especially pears, do not ripen off the vines and must be left until fully mature if the highest quality is expected, especially for dessert.
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Of late years large acreages have been planted especially for the markets of the Canadian West. Cooperative associations have been organized to handle all varieties extending over the season; but, in the case of one large company, one variety only, Worden, is handled. This ripens before Concord and consequently brings a high price. The location of the vineyards of this particular company is ideal; the fruit is of good quality and ripens early and it seems that under those particular conditions the Worden is the most
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profitable grape to grow.
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The forming of cooperative associations for the purpose of marketing the fruit has the distinct advantage of improved distribution. It has also cut down the handling expenses. Very few baskets, except special orders, are sent great distances by express. The cooperative associations have enabled the growers to secure car rates, and though prices have been comparatively low  even as low as 10 cents for an eight-pound basket f.o.b. shipping station, the cheap and rapid methods of handling have made the industry profitable.
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Returns
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Grapes, as grown at the present, might be considered a long-term investment with every prospect of regular dividends. The cost of planting, posting and early cultivation is comparatively high, but the vines bear early. Good crops are produced the third and fourth years after planting and the following year the vines should be in full bearing. The cost of planting and growing an acre of grapes to three years of age can only be estimated. Men, methods and conditions vary much that no figures can be taken as absolute; the figures and calculations serve as a guide and such they are given here:
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TABLES
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FIRST YEAR TO FOURTH YEAR
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The late J.W. Spencer in this article in the Cyclopedia of American Horticulture on “Grapes in the North” gave the following as submitted by A.B. Clothier, Silver Creek, N.Y.:
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TABLE
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Varieties
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The prospective planter will do well to consider the best-known and the most popular varieties before planting. More than 75% of the grapes planted in the commercial Sections of Canada are Concords and Wordens. The same is true of New York State. The Concord almost alone is used in the grape-juice industry.
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It is the leading fermented wine grape also. Worden, is in second place, being a little earlier, and although a smaller yielder, is cutting into the Concord market for ordinary purposes. Lindley, Wilder, Vergennes, Agawam, Catawba and some related varieties all hold a place for general market
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purposes and the plantings are increasing. When quality is expected, these are the varieties to grow, but the yield will not be so heavy as for the Concord. Delaware is in good demand because of its quality when well grown. Moyer and Brighton are giving way to better varieties.
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The Niagara, in spite of its many drawbacks, is a favorite, and although a few years ago it suffered, it has again found its proper place and is in steady demand. The newer varieties have not been tested long commercially and
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it is well for the new grower to plant them only in limited numbers until they have proved they are worthy of a larger place.
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All the commercial varieties grown out-of-doors are Labrusca or Labrusca-vinifera hybrids and seedlings, and no attempt is being made to grow the pure vinifera.
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F. M. Clement.
      
Grapes in the South.
 
Grapes in the South.
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The section of Texas south of San Antonio, lying between the Gulf and the Rio Grande River, as large in area as the state of New York, has a climate and soil excellently suited to the vinifera grapes, and in the last six years, since railroads beg^an to ramify that section, and where irrigation facilities are afforded, considerable plantations of vinifera grapes have been made, the Flame Tokay, Malaga (Pense), Muscat of Alexandria, Cornichon. Black Morocco, and so on, being the varieties chiefly used. Of course these require grafting upon resistant stocks, in all but the very sandy soils.  
 
The section of Texas south of San Antonio, lying between the Gulf and the Rio Grande River, as large in area as the state of New York, has a climate and soil excellently suited to the vinifera grapes, and in the last six years, since railroads beg^an to ramify that section, and where irrigation facilities are afforded, considerable plantations of vinifera grapes have been made, the Flame Tokay, Malaga (Pense), Muscat of Alexandria, Cornichon. Black Morocco, and so on, being the varieties chiefly used. Of course these require grafting upon resistant stocks, in all but the very sandy soils.  
 
Georgia.
 
Georgia.
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For Georgia, Hugh N. Starnes contributes the following notes:
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"Leading varieties of grapes for Georgia are as follows: Ives, Concord, Niagara, Delaware, Moore Early, Goethe, Lindley; and for wine, Norton Virginia, Scuppernong and Thomas.
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"The general distance apart to plant is 10 by 10 feet; Delawares 8 by 8 feet; Rotundifolias 30 feet. Single stake spiral method of training is chiefly used, and either spur-renewal or cane-renewal pruning employed, according to circumstances. Some growers employ trellises instead of single stakes, using either one or two wires and adopting the umbrella Kniffin or low wire arm spur Kniffin system of training.
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"Very little wine is now made in this state, and that is nearly all claret from Norton Virginia, Ives or Concord. In southern Georgia a poor article of Scuppernong wine is made, but it is not adapted to trained palates. Delaware and Goethe blended are sometimes used to make a very good Rhine wine, and when properly handled sometimes produce an excellent article. Goethe must, reinforced with 20 per cent of California brandy, makes a good pale sherry; yet it is difficult to sell wine here profitably. When it can be sold at all, prices range from 50 cents to $2 a gallon, according to the grade. Grape vinegar, while generally regarded as inferior to cider vinegar, will bring about 25 or 30 cents at retail and 20 cents wholesale, and at these figures is more profitable than wine.
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"When sold fresh, the grapes are generally shipped in refrigerator cars in ten-pound baskets to different northern points. Later shipments take a southerly direction to Atlantic, and Gulf seaports. Sometimes the regulation six- or nine-carrier peach-crates are used for snipping grapes, but are not so satisfactory as the ten-pound separate baskets. Delawares are generally shipped in five-pound baskets. Returns are uncertain. They vary from 1 ½  cents a pound to 5 cents according to circumstances. Sometimes as high as 10 cents is realized on very early and very late shipments or with choice grapes, but this is seldom. Distilleries pay three- fourths of 1 cent a pound delivered, or gather and pay ½ cent a pound. If only one ton to the acre of grapes is the yield, the gross return (and also the net return) an acre would thus be from $10 to $15. This is more than cotton ordinarily nets. With two tons to the acre of grapes, which is not an enormous yield, the return would be $30 an acre delivered at the still. To those who have no scruples in regard to so disposing of their crop, this is probably the most profitable method. There are local stills in almost every county. There is not much encouragement now for grape- raising in Georgia, and vineyards are annually being destroyed by hundreds of acres. Some planting, however, is still going on in southern Georgia, in the "wire grass" country, where the industry is still found profitable by reason of the fact that the northern market may be entered ahead of competition, and also that insects and fungous pests have not yet put in an appearance in that region.
      
Planting, training, and the like.
 
Planting, training, and the like.
    
The vines of the true southern grapes, such as Herbemont and the Post-oak grape hybrids, are planted 12 to 14 feet apart, in rows 9 feet apart, while such northern varieties as are planted are set 8 feet apart in row. The Muscadines, such as Scuppernong, are mostly grown upon arbors about 7 feet high and rarely or never pruned, although trained on trellis, as are other grapes, and, pruned early in fall, after leaf-fall, succeed excellently. The culture is mostly with the plow, turning first away and then to the rows, hoeing the space along the row not reached by the plow. The trellis mostly used is the 3-wire trellis; first wire at 18 to 24 inches from the ground, and the others successively 1 foot apart, above the first. The training is commonly an indifferent attempt at the Kniffin system, and no system is generally carried out. Some pinch back the leading shoots once, few twice. Some use single posts and spur-prune. A few have made the Munson canopy trough trellis of 3 wires, and report most favorably of it.
 
The vines of the true southern grapes, such as Herbemont and the Post-oak grape hybrids, are planted 12 to 14 feet apart, in rows 9 feet apart, while such northern varieties as are planted are set 8 feet apart in row. The Muscadines, such as Scuppernong, are mostly grown upon arbors about 7 feet high and rarely or never pruned, although trained on trellis, as are other grapes, and, pruned early in fall, after leaf-fall, succeed excellently. The culture is mostly with the plow, turning first away and then to the rows, hoeing the space along the row not reached by the plow. The trellis mostly used is the 3-wire trellis; first wire at 18 to 24 inches from the ground, and the others successively 1 foot apart, above the first. The training is commonly an indifferent attempt at the Kniffin system, and no system is generally carried out. Some pinch back the leading shoots once, few twice. Some use single posts and spur-prune. A few have made the Munson canopy trough trellis of 3 wires, and report most favorably of it.
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Fungicides are used successfully by some. Others plant only such as Ives, Norton Virginia, Moore Early. Perkins, and some other varieties not subject to rot and mildew, so as to avoid spraying. They also avoid, thereby, having grapes of the finer qualities, and get only the lowest prices. From such mostly come the report that grape-culture with them is unprofitable. So it should be, as such grapes in the market have the effect to depress prices on all kinds of grapes. In the moistcr parts of the South, black-rot, downy mildew and ripe grape-rot are very prevalent, but, excepting the ripe rot, are readily overcome by the bordeaux mixture spray properly applied.
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Few growers in the South use fertilizers in their vineyards. Some use barnyard manure, but the more intelligent use cotton seed or cotton-seed meal in connection with ground bone, kainit and soluble phosphates.
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Marketing and profits.
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The crop is mostly marketed fresh in the local or nearby markets, as the ordinary freight and express rates will not permit profitable returns on the varieties mostly grown. But it has been demonstrated that fine grapes that will carry well can easily be grown in the South, and, when handled in best manner in neat baskets, are profitable.
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There are a few established wineries in the South, which use Ives, Norton Virginia, Herbemont, LeNoir, and the Scuppernong and other Muscadine varieties. The chief complaint of wine-growers is that legislation brought about by the prohibition movement is adverse and often entirely prohibitive. In consequence, some have bottled the juice fresh under some sterilizing process, but the people are not yet educated up to the use of this excellent, healthful, nourishing beverage; yet the demand for it is growing, and may be largely increased by enterprising makers.
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Reports collected from all parts of the South state the profits all the way from nothing up to $150 an acre, sometimes higher, and it is clearly evident that the intelligence and enterprise of the planter are the chief elements in controlling profits. Of course, localities, soils and varieties play important parts, but an intelligent grower would not select poor locality, situation, soil and varieties to start with, just as he would not pursue poor methods in the conduct of the business.
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There appears no reason why the South may not become one of the greatest grape countries in the world and it promises everything to the wide-awake, intelligent grape-grower, for its capabilities are unlimited in the production in quality and season when no other section competes with it, and it has vast markets at home and in the great cities just north of it.
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T. V. Munson.
      
Grapes on the Pacific slope.
 
Grapes on the Pacific slope.
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The bunches are thinned at any time after the berries have set and before they have reached one-third their mature size. No bunches are removed, but only a certain proportion of the berries of each bunch. The number of berries to be removed will depend upon how compact the unthinned bunches usually become. In general it will vary from one-third to one-half of the total number. The thinning is effected by cutting out several of the side branchlets of the bunch. The branchlets should be removed principally from the part of the bunch which has most tendency to compactness, usually the upper part. The work can be done very rapidly as no great care is necessary in preserving the shape of the bunch. However irregular or one sided the bunch looks immediately after thinning, it will round out and become regular before ripening. A long, narrow-bladed knife or a pair of grape-trimming scissors can be used conveniently for this work.
 
The bunches are thinned at any time after the berries have set and before they have reached one-third their mature size. No bunches are removed, but only a certain proportion of the berries of each bunch. The number of berries to be removed will depend upon how compact the unthinned bunches usually become. In general it will vary from one-third to one-half of the total number. The thinning is effected by cutting out several of the side branchlets of the bunch. The branchlets should be removed principally from the part of the bunch which has most tendency to compactness, usually the upper part. The work can be done very rapidly as no great care is necessary in preserving the shape of the bunch. However irregular or one sided the bunch looks immediately after thinning, it will round out and become regular before ripening. A long, narrow-bladed knife or a pair of grape-trimming scissors can be used conveniently for this work.
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Harvesting and packing.
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Harvesting
    
The grapes should not be harvested until they contain at least 17 to 19 per cent of sugar, varying with the variety and the locality. Unripe grapes are distasteful to the consumer, spoil the market for later and better grapes, and are more liable to deterioration from wilting and decay. After every care has been taken to produce good shipping grapes on the vines, their proper handling is no less important. A bunch of grapes which is perfect in the vineyard may easily be ruined by careless gathering or hauling before it reaches the packing-shed.
 
The grapes should not be harvested until they contain at least 17 to 19 per cent of sugar, varying with the variety and the locality. Unripe grapes are distasteful to the consumer, spoil the market for later and better grapes, and are more liable to deterioration from wilting and decay. After every care has been taken to produce good shipping grapes on the vines, their proper handling is no less important. A bunch of grapes which is perfect in the vineyard may easily be ruined by careless gathering or hauling before it reaches the packing-shed.
    
The grapes, in gathering and packing, should be touched as little as possible and handled only by the main stem. They should be placed carefully in wide, shallow boxes in a single layer. Hauling to the packinghouse should be done very carefully, in wagons provided with springs. The grapes should be protected from the dust and the direct rays of the sun, and the boxes should be so stacked that there is no danger of crushing the grapes. Fig. 1736 shows two crates or boxes of grapes.
 
The grapes, in gathering and packing, should be touched as little as possible and handled only by the main stem. They should be placed carefully in wide, shallow boxes in a single layer. Hauling to the packinghouse should be done very carefully, in wagons provided with springs. The grapes should be protected from the dust and the direct rays of the sun, and the boxes should be so stacked that there is no danger of crushing the grapes. Fig. 1736 shows two crates or boxes of grapes.
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The most usual way of packing table grapes in California is in square chip baskets holding about five pounds and placed in fours in open-sided crates. Extra- large bunches or "clusters" are sometimes packed in oblong baskets of twice this size, of which two are placed in a crate. Experiments have been made with various "fillers" to protect the grapes during transit and to increase the time during which they will remain in good condition. The cork-dust or waste used in Spain for the grapes of Almeria is unavailable. Various substitutes have been tried. Early attempts to utilize ordinary sawdust for this purpose proved unsuccessful for the reason that the grapes failed to hold in good condition and absorbed disagreeable flavors from the wood. Recently it has been demonstrated that pure, dry redwood sawdust, from which the chips and finest particles have been removed by screening, is even superior to ground cork for grape-packing. Redwood is neutral in odor and flavor and imparts no disagreeable taste to the grapes packed in it and held in cold storage. During the past three years this method of packing and storing has received wide commercial application. The shipments of Emperor grapes packed in sawdust during 1913 amounted to nearly 300 carloads. Table grapes for local markets are often shipped in the fifty- pound "lug" boxes in which they are gathered.
      
Raisins.
 
Raisins.
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A number of imperfectly understood diseases whose causes are unknown are recognized. The chief of these is the Anaheim or Californian disease. This name is inappropriate as it seems to occur also in southern Europe and Algeria where it is ascribed to over-bearing coincident with a series of dry seasons or other weakening causes. Another widely spread disease of a similar nature but less fatal is known as Little-leaf. Various causes for this disease have been suggested, but the most plausible opinion seems to be that it is a case of mal-nutrition due to unfavorable soil temperatures during the spring.
 
A number of imperfectly understood diseases whose causes are unknown are recognized. The chief of these is the Anaheim or Californian disease. This name is inappropriate as it seems to occur also in southern Europe and Algeria where it is ascribed to over-bearing coincident with a series of dry seasons or other weakening causes. Another widely spread disease of a similar nature but less fatal is known as Little-leaf. Various causes for this disease have been suggested, but the most plausible opinion seems to be that it is a case of mal-nutrition due to unfavorable soil temperatures during the spring.
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References.
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Publications of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, California, especially Viticultural Report for 1887-93, Bulletins Nos. 119, 180, 186, 192, 193, 210, 241-246 and Circulars Nos. 26, 76, 115. Also, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 172; Yearbook, United States Dept. of Agric., 1902, article on "Grape Raisin and Wine Production in the United States;" Yearbook, 1904, article on "Some Uses of the Grape Vine and its Fruit;" Farmers' Bull. No. 471; U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bull. No. 35; Reports California State Viticul- tural Commission; Gustav Eisen, "The Raisin Industry-" F. T. Bioletti.
      
Grapes under glass. (See, also, page 1261.)
 
Grapes under glass. (See, also, page 1261.)
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Lady Downs is another late black grape of good quality, but not adapted to all localities. Rose Chasselas, a small red grape, is the earliest and very beautiful. Trentham Black, the earliest black grape, has small clusters, but large, soft berries quite like Alicante. Foster Seeding is a beautiful midseason, amber- colored grape, with large clusters and berries sometimes liable to crack. Madresfield Court Muscat is a midseason grape—fine in quality, but also inclined to crack. This trouble can often be controlled by twisting or slitting the stems of the clusters, thereby checking the flow of sap. D. M. Dunning.
 
Lady Downs is another late black grape of good quality, but not adapted to all localities. Rose Chasselas, a small red grape, is the earliest and very beautiful. Trentham Black, the earliest black grape, has small clusters, but large, soft berries quite like Alicante. Foster Seeding is a beautiful midseason, amber- colored grape, with large clusters and berries sometimes liable to crack. Madresfield Court Muscat is a midseason grape—fine in quality, but also inclined to crack. This trouble can often be controlled by twisting or slitting the stems of the clusters, thereby checking the flow of sap. D. M. Dunning.
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Grapefruit (Citrus grandis). Rutaceae. Figs. 975, 1744. Plate L. A large globose fruit having slightly bitter acid pulp; it is used as a breakfast fruit and also for salads and desserts. It is grown in Florida, California, Arizona, and the West Indies, and is now extensively used by Americans. The name grapefruit, under which this fruit is known commercially, seems to have come from the West Indies and owes its origin to the fact that the fruits are often borne in clusters of three or four to twelve or more, much like a bunch of grapes. This fruit is also known as pomelo. The shaddock or pummelo is a distinct strain, not grown for commerce in this country. See Citrus (page 782) and Pomelo.
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Grape fruit trees are large round-topped, with regular branches: lvs. dark glossy green, ovate with broadly winged petioles: spines slender, flexible, borne in the axils of the lvs.: fls. large, white, borne singly or in clusters in the axils of the lvs.; stamens 20-25; ovary globose, sharply set off from the style, which is deciduous: fr. pale lemon-yellow, flattened spheroid or globose, 4-6 in. diam., segms. 11-14, filled with slightly bitter acid pulp; seeds large, flattened and wrinkled; peel ¼ - ½ in. thick, with numerous oil-glands.
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The grapefruit appears to have been introduced into Florida by the Spaniards in the early part of the sixteenth century and until a quarter of a century ago it was grown only by the Florida pioneers. Since its culture has been undertaken on a commercial basis, the acreage planted to this fruit has rapidly increased, 1,061,537 boxes having been produced in Florida in 1909 as compared with 12,306 in 1899, and 122,515 boxes in California in 1909 as compared with 17,851 boxes in 1899. The total value of the crop in 1909, as reported by the Census, was over $2,000,000.
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An excellent appetizer, the grapefruit is the most popular of breakfast fruits. It is also probable that it possesses valuable tonic properties, and it has been recommended by physicians in cases of malaria and biliousness. The sprightly flavor of the fruit, due to its slightly bitter principle, makes the grapefruit one of the most refreshing of all citrous fruits.
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The grapefruit is more susceptible to cold than ordinary citrous fruits and its profitable culture is consequently restricted to regions below the frost line. The selection of a location is a matter of supreme importance in Florida where the occasional freezes have wrought so much damage in the past. The grapefruit, like most citrous fruits, prefers a light, well-drained soil, sandy or porous, though, because of its dense foliage, it grows better on poor soil than does the orange. The trees must be well fertilized in order to produce the best results, for it must be remembered that the care and fertilizer given are important factors in determining the quality and character of the fruit produced. Budded trees usually begin to bear in three to four years and generally reach full bearing in about ten years. They continue to bear for an indefinite period. The trees may be set from 18 to 25 feet apart, depending upon the stock on which they are grown. The seedlings make excellent stocks because of their well-developed root-systems and are extensively used for this purpose. They are hardier than the rough lemon but not so hardy as the orange. Grapefruits are usually propagated by budding because of the variations in the different varieties.
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One of the most extensively grown varieties in Florida is the Duncan: fruits medium to large, oblate, light yellow; pulp a pleasant bitter acid flavor with few seeds; peel medium, firm; a late bearer, fruits keep well on the tree. The Duncan is one of the hardiest grapefruits, especially when budded on trifoliate orange stock (Poncirus trifoliata). Among others grown in Florida are Hall (Silver Cluster): fruits yellow, pleasantly bitter, globose, medium to large, in large bunches; a heavy bearer. Pernambuco: fruits large, smooth-skinned. Introduced from Pernambuco, Brazil, by the United States Department of Agriculture. Triumph: fruits medium size, heavy, smooth-skinned, not very bitter; a prolific and a strong grower, but rather tender; season early. The Bowen, Excelsior, Josselyn, Leonardy, Manville, McCarty, McKinley, May, Standard and Walters are Florida seedlings cultivated locally in that state.
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In California one of the best varieties is the Marsh (Marsh Seedless): fruit large (see Fig. 1744), subglobose, light yellow, not very bitter, often seedless, tree low and spreading. This variety originated in Florida but is best adapted to California conditions. The popularity of the grapefruit in California has been increasing during the past few years and it seems certain that this fruit is destined to become one of the standard fruits of that state. It should be noted that in California the grapefruit is really a summer fruit; in Florida it is a winter and spring fruit.
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Hybrids.—The tangelo, the result of a cross between the tangerine orange and the grapefruit (pomelo) is a striking new citrous fruit. The Sampson tangelo, obtained by the writer in 1897 by crossing the tangerine with the Bowen grapefruit, is the first of this new group of fruits to be grown commercially. Other tangelos are now being tested. See Tangelo.
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Diseases.—The grapefruit tree is decidedly resistant to mal-di-gomma or foot-rot and is only slightly affected by scab. It is, however, more susceptible than any other citrous fruit to citrus canker. This disease was first discovered near Miami, Florida, in July, 1913, by E. V. Blackman. It is believed to have been introduced from Japan. In appearance somewhat similar to the scab, this disease has spread over a large area in southern Florida. It is very infectious and has been carried from one grove to another by wagons, birds, and other means. No remedy is known, and Florida growers, in order to check its spread, have been obliged to burn hundreds of infected trees. Investigators differ as to the cause of citrus canker. Walter T. Swingle.
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Grapefruit, or pomelo, in California.
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Pomelos have been grown for many years in California, but, although they succeed admirably, they have not been produced in a commercial way until within recent years. Even at present, the product is only a small fraction of that of the orange and lemon. Perhaps not more than 400 or 500 cars are annually shipped out of the state. All of the Florida varieties have been tested, many of them proving unsuited to the conditions. At present the Marsh, or Marsh Seedless as it is commonly called, is planted almost exclusively. The Triumph and the Imperial are also grown to some extent, while the Nectar and the Clayson are new varieties which are attracting attention.
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But little attention has been paid to the handling of this fruit in California, and it is undoubtedly true that many of the seedling and miscellaneous varieties which have been inadvisedly put on the market have been very much inferior to Florida-grown pomelos. Usually, on account of the poor varieties grown, California pomelos are shipped mainly to Pacific and intermountam states where they do not come in such active competition with the Florida product. It is undoubtedly true, however, that certain varieties of the pomelo when well grown and intelligently handled are equal to the best Florida product. There is no reason why the production of pomelos in California should not be considerably increased. Growers, however, seem to fear an over-production and new plantings are at present quite small.
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The pomelo, in its general growth, resistance to frost, propagation, culture, fertilizing, irrigation, and the like, is similar to the orange. The season in California is from February 1 until September 1. J. Eliot Coit.
      
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