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| − | {{Otheruses}} | + | __NOTOC__{{Plantbox |
| − | {{Taxobox | + | | name = ''Ananas comosus'' |
| − | | color = lightgreen | + | | common_names = Pineapple |
| − | | name = Pineapple | + | | growth_habit = herbaceous |
| | + | | high = ? <!--- 1m (3 ft) --> |
| | + | | wide = <!--- 65cm (25 inches) --> |
| | + | | origin = S Brazil, Paraguay |
| | + | | poisonous = <!--- indicate parts of plants which are known/thought to be poisonous --> |
| | + | | lifespan = perennial |
| | + | | exposure = full sun for fruit{{SSN}} |
| | + | | water = regular{{SSN}} |
| | + | | features = fruit, foliage |
| | + | | hardiness = ?°C (28°F) briefly |
| | + | | bloom = <!--- seasons which the plant blooms, if it is grown for its flowers --> |
| | + | | usda_zones = ? <!--- eg. 8-11 --> |
| | + | | sunset_zones = 25-27, greenhouse/house{{SSN}} |
| | + | | color = IndianRed |
| | | image = Pineapple1.JPG | | | image = Pineapple1.JPG |
| − | | image_width = 240px | + | | image_width = 180px <!--- leave as 240px if horizontal orientation photo, or change to 180px if vertical --> |
| | | image_caption = A pineapple, on its parent plant | | | image_caption = A pineapple, on its parent plant |
| − | | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | + | | regnum = Plantae |
| − | | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | + | | divisio = Magnoliophyta |
| − | | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | + | | classis = Liliopsida |
| − | | ordo = [[Poales]] | + | | ordo = Poales |
| − | | familia = [[Bromeliaceae]] | + | | familia = Bromeliaceae |
| − | | subfamilia = [[Bromelioideae]] | + | | subfamilia = Bromelioideae |
| − | | genus = ''[[Ananas]]'' | + | | genus = Ananas |
| − | | species = '''''A. comosus''''' | + | | species = comosus |
| − | | binomial = ''Ananas comosus'' | + | | subspecies = |
| − | | binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]) Merr. | + | | cultivar = |
| − | | synonyms =
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| − | ''Ananas sativus''
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| | }} | | }} |
| − | The '''pineapple''' (''Ananas comosus'') is a [[tropical]] [[plant]] and [[fruit]] (multiple), probably native to [[Uruguay]], [[Brazil]] or [[Paraguay]]. It is a tall (1–1.5 [[metre|m]]) [[herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] [[perennial plant]] with 30 or more trough-shaped and pointed leaves 30–100 cm long, surrounding a thick [[plant stem|stem]]. The pineapple is an example of a [[Multiple fruit|multiple fruit]]: multiple, spirally-arranged flowers along the axis each produce a fleshy fruit that becomes pressed against the fruits of adjacent flowers, forming what appears to be a single fleshy fruit. The [[leaves]] of the Smooth Cayenne [[cultivar]] mostly lack spines except at the [[leaf]] tip, but the Spanish and Queen [[cultivar]]s have large spines along the leaf margins. Pineapples are the only [[bromeliad]] fruit in widespread cultivation.
| + | '''Adaptation''': The pineapples is a tropical or near-tropical plant, but will usually tolerate brief exposures to 28° F. Prolonged cold above freezing retards growth, delays maturity and causes the fruit to be more acid. Pineapples are drought-tolerant and will produce fruit under yearly precipitation rates ranging from 25 - 150 in., depending on cultivar and location and degree of atmospheric humidity. They are successfully grown in southern Florida and coastal areas of southern California. The small plant adapts well to container and greenhouse culture and makes an interesting potted plant. |
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| − | ==The name==
| + | '''Growth Habit''': The pineapple plant is a herbaceous perennial, 2-1/2 to 5 ft. high with a spread of 3 to 4 ft. It is essentially a short, stout stem with a rosette of waxy, straplike leaves. |
| − | The name ''pineapple'' in English (or ''piña'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) comes from the similarity of the fruit to a [[pine]] [[Conifer cone|cone]].
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| − | The word "pineapple", first recorded in 1398, was originally used to describe the reproductive organs of conifer trees (now termed pine cones). When European explorers discovered this tropical fruit, they called them "pineapples" (term first recorded in that sense in 1664) because it resembled what we know as pine cones. The term "pine cone" was first recorded in 1695 to replace the original meaning of "pineapple".<ref>Oxford English Dictionary entries for "pineapple" and "pine cone", 1971.</ref> | + | '''Foliage''': The long-pointed leaves are 20 - 72 in. in length, usually needle tipped and generally bearing sharp, upcurved spines on the margins. They may be all green or variously striped with red, yellow or ivory down the middle or near the margins. As the stem continues to grow, it acquires at its apex a compact tuft of stiff, short leaves called the crown or top. Occasionally a plant may bear 2 or more heads instead of the normal one. |
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| − | In the scientific binomial ''Ananas comosus'', ''ananas'', the original name of the fruit, comes from the [[Tupian languages|Tupi]] (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) word for pineapple ''nanas'', as recorded by André Thevenet in 1555 and ''comosus'' means "tufted" and refers to the stem of the fruit. Other members of the [[Ananas|''Ananas'' genus]] are often called pineapple as well by laymen.
| + | '''Flowers''': At blooming time, the stem elongates and enlarges near the apex and puts forth an inflorescence of small purple or red flowers. The flowers are pollinated by humming-birds, and these flowers usually develop small, hard seeds. Seeds are generally not found in commercially grown pineapple. |
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| − | A large, sweet pineapple grown especially in Brazil is called "abacaxi".
| + | '''Fruit''': The oval to cylindrical-shaped, compound fruit develops from many small fruits fused together. It is both juicy and fleshy with the stem serving as the fibrous core. The tough, waxy rind may be dark green, yellow, orange-yellow or reddish when the fruit is ripe. The flesh ranges from nearly white to yellow. In size the fruits are up to 12 in. long and weigh 1 to 10 pounds or more. |
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| − | A well known popular term for a pineapple is the word 'Maltman'. This is just another term to phrase the way the pineapple is shaped, and was given due to the Maltman haircut which bears a striking resemblance to a pineapple. | + | ==Cultivation== |
| | + | [[Image:pineapple field.jpg|thumb|right|A pineapple field in [[Veracruz (state)|Veracruz]], [[Mexico]].]] |
| | + | '''Location''': Pineapples should be planted where the temperature remains warmest, such as the south side of a home, or in a sunny portion of the garden. |
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| − | ==Wild pineapples==
| + | '''Soil''': The best soil for the pineapple is a friable, well-drained sandy loam with a high organic content. The pH should be within a range of 4.5 to 6.5. Soils that are not sufficiently acid can be treated with sulfur to achieve the desired level. The plant cannot stand waterlogging and if there is an impervious subsoil, drainage needs to be improved. |
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| − | Certain [[bat]]-pollinated wild pineapples, members of the [[bromeliad]] family, do the exact opposite of most flowers by opening their flowers at night and closing them during the day; this protects them from [[weevil]]s, which are most active during daylight hours.
| + | '''Irrigation''': The plant is surprisingly drought tolerant, but adequate soil moisture is necessary for good fruit production. |
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| − | ==Fruit==
| + | '''Fertilization''': Nitrogen is essential to increase fruit size and total yield, which should be added every four months. Spraying with a urea solution is another way to supply nitrogen. Fruit weight has also been increased by the addition of magnesium. Of the minor elements, iron is the most important, particularly in high pH soils. Iron may be supplied by foliar sprays of ferrous sulfate. |
| − | The fruitlets of a pineapple are arranged in two interlocking spirals, eight spirals in one direction, thirteen in the other; each being a [[Fibonacci number]]. This is one of many examples of Fibonacci numbers appearing in nature.
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| − | The natural (or most common) [[pollinator]] of the pineapple is the [[hummingbird]]. Pollination is required for seed formation; the presence of seeds negatively affects the quality of the fruit. In Hawaii, where pineapple is cultivated on an agricultural scale, importation of hummingbirds is prohibited for this reason.
| + | '''Frost Protection''': Pineapple plants require a frost-free environment. They are small enough to be easily covered when frost threatens, but cold weather adversely affects the fruit quality. |
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| − | [[Image:pineapple field.jpg|thumb|left|A pineapple field in [[Veracruz (state)|Veracruz]], [[Mexico]].]]
| + | '''Harvest''': It is difficult to tell when the pineapple is ready to be harvested. Some people judge ripeness and quality by snapping a finger against the side of the fruit. A good, ripe fruit has a dull, solid sound. Immaturity and poor quality are indicated by a hollow thud. The fruit should be stored at 45° F or above, but should be stored for no longer than 4 - 6 weeks. |
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| − | At one time, most canned and fresh pineapples were produced on Smooth Cayenne plants. Since about 2000, the most common fresh pineapple fruit found in U.S. and European supermarkets is a low-acid hybrid that was developed in Hawaii in the early 1970s. Pineapple is commonly used in [[dessert]]s and other types of fruit dishes, or served on its own. Fresh pineapple is often somewhat expensive as the tropical fruit is delicate and difficult to ship. Pineapples can ripen after harvest, but require certain temperatures for this process to occur. The ripening of pineapples can be rather difficult as they will not ripen for some time and in a day or two become over-ripe, therefore, pineapples are most widely available canned.
| + | '''Misc.''': Fruiting can be forced when the plant is mature by using acetylene gas or a spray of calcium carbide solution (30 gms to 1 gal. water), which produces acetylene. Or calcium carbide (10 -12 grains) can be deposited in the crown of the plant to be dissolved by rain. A safer and more practical method for home growers is a foliar spray of a-naphthaleneacetic acid (1 gm in 10 gal water) or B-hydroxyethyl hydrazine. The latter is more effective. The plants usually produce for about four years, but they may last longer in California since the life cycle is slowed down by cooler weather. |
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| − | ==Dietary effects== | + | ===Propagation=== |
| − | {{nutritionalvalue | name=Pineapple, raw | kJ=202| protein=0.54 g | fat=0.12 g | carbs=12.63 g | fiber=1.4 g | | sugars=9.26 g | iron_mg=0.28| calcium_mg=13 | magnesium_mg=12 | phosphorus_mg=8 | potassium_mg=115 | zinc_mg=0.10 | vitC_mg=36.2 | pantothenic_mg=0.205 | vitB6_mg=0.110 | folate_ug=15 | thiamin_mg=0.079 | riboflavin_mg=0.031 | niacin_mg=0.489 | right=1 | source_usda=1 }}
| + | Pineapples are propagated by new vegetative growth. There are four general types: slips that arise from the stalk below the fruit, suckers that originate at the axils or leaves, crowns that grow from the top of the fruits, and ratoons that come out from the under-ground portions of the stems. |
| − | Pineapple contains a [[proteolytic]] [[enzyme]] [[bromelain]], which digests food by breaking down protein. Pineapple juice can thus be used as a marinade and tenderizer for meat. The enzymes in pineapples can interfere with the preparation of some foods, such as [[Gelatin dessert|jelly]] or other [[gelatin]]-based desserts. There is significant evidence pointing to the anti-inflammatory benefits of bromelain. Some have claimed that pineapple has benefits for some intestinal disorders while others claim that it helps to [[Induction (birth)|induce]] [[childbirth]] when a baby is overdue.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Adaikan | first = P. Ganesan | coauthors = Adebiyi, Adebowale | title = Mechanisms of the Oxytocic Activity of Papaya Proteinases | journal = Pharmaceutical Biology | volume = 42 | issue = 8 | pages = 646–655 | date = December 2004 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | url = http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a725241824~db=all~order=page | doi = 10.1080/13880200490902608}}</ref> These enzymes can be hazardous to someone suffering from certain protein deficiencies or disorders, such as [[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome]]. Due to its high acidity, some people believe that excessive pineapple consumption can lead to erosion of the stomach lining.
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| − | It can also be used to enhance digestion. Despite these benefits, fresh pineapple may cause irritation of the tip of the tongue in some cases. Some may describe this sensation as a raw tingling. Some believe that dipping pineapple slices in a mild salt water solution will mitigate this effect and may also intensify the pineapple flavor.
| + | Although slips and suckers are preferred, crowns are the main planting material of home gardeners. These are obtained from store-bought fruit and are removed from the fruit by twisting the crown until it comes free. Although the crown may be quartered to produce four slips, in California's marginal conditions it is best not to cut or divide the crown. The bottom leaves are removed and the crown is left to dry for two days, then planted or started in water. |
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| − | Pineapple is a good source of [[manganese]] (91 %DV in a 1 cup serving), as well as containing significant amounts of [[Vitamin C]] (94 %DV in a 1 cup serving) and [[Vitamin B1]] (8 %DV in a 1 cup serving). <ref name="nd">[http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-C00001-01c20WZ.html Nutrition Facts for pineapple]</ref>
| + | Pineapples are planted outside during the summer months. A ground cover of black plastic works very well for pineapples, both as protection from weeds and for the extra heat it seems to absorb. It also helps to conserve moisture. Traditionally, plants are spaced 12 inches apart. Set crowns about 2 inches deep; suckers and slips 3 to 4 inches deep. |
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| − | ==Cultivation history== | + | ===Pests and diseases=== |
| − | {{refimprove|date=September 2007}}
| + | [[Mealybugs]] spread by [[ants]] can be a problem. Controling the ants will control the mealybugs. In most commercial growing areas, [[nematodes]], mites and beetles can also be damaging, but these have not been a problem in California. |
| − | [[Image:Charles-pineapple.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Charles II of England|Charles II]] presented with the first pineapple grown in England (1675 painting by Hendrik Danckerts).]] | |
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| − | The pineapple spread from its original area through cultivation, and by the time of [[Christopher Columbus]] it grew throughout South and Central America, southern Mexico and the Caribbean ([[West Indies]]). Columbus may have taken a sample back to Europe. The Spanish introduced it into the [[Philippines]], [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaii]] (introduced in the early 19th century, first commercial plantation 1886) and [[Guam]]. The fruit was successfully cultivated in European [[Greenhouse|hothouse]]s, and [[Pineapple Pit|pineapple pits]], beginning in 1720.
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| − | Commonly cultivated varieties include Red Spanish, Hilo, Smooth Cayenne, St. Michael, Kona Sugarloaf, Natal Queen, and Pernambuco. Canned pineapple is almost always Smooth Cayenne.
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| − | Pineapple cultivation in the [[USA]] began in the early 1900s on Hawaii. [[Dole Food Company|Dole]] and [[Del Monte]] began growing pineapple on the island of [[Oahu]] in 1901 and 1917, respectively. [[Maui Pineapple Company]] began pineapple cultivation on the island of [[Maui]] in 1909. In 2006, Del Monte announced its withdrawal from pineapple cultivation in Hawaii, leaving only Dole and Maui Pineapple Company in Hawaii as the USA’s largest growers of pineapples. Maui Pineapple Company markets its Maui Gold® brand of pineapple and Dole markets its Hawaii Gold® brand of pineapple.
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| − | In the USA in 1986, the Pineapple Research Institute was dissolved and its assets were divided between Del Monte and Maui Land and Pineapple. Del Monte took 73-114, which it dubbed MD-2, to its plantations in Costa Rica, found it to be well-suited to growing there, and launched it publicly in 1996. (Del Monte also began marketing 73-50, dubbed CO-2, as Del Monte Gold). In 1997, Del Monte began marketing its Gold Extra Sweet pineapple, known internally as MD-2. MD-2 is a hybrid that originated in the breeding program of the now-defunct Pineapple Research Institute in Hawaii, which conducted research on behalf of Del Monte, [[Maui Land & Pineapple Company]], and Dole.
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| − | Southeast Asia dominates world production: in 2001 [[Thailand]] produced 1.979 million tons, the [[Philippines]] 1.618 million tons while in the Americas, [[Brazil]] 1.43 million tons. Total world production in 2001 was 14.220 million tons. The primary exporters of fresh pineapples in 2001 were [[Costa Rica]], 322,000 tons; [[Côte d'Ivoire]], 188,000 tons; and the Philippines, 135,000 tons.
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| − | In commercial farming, flowering can be artificially induced and the early harvesting of the main fruit can encourage the development of a second crop of smaller fruits.
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| | ==Cultivars== | | ==Cultivars== |
| − | * Hilo: A compact 2-3 lb. Hawaiian variant of the Smooth Cayenne. The fruit is more cylindrical and produces many suckers but no slips. | + | *'''Hilo''' - A compact 2-3 lb. Hawaiian variant of the Smooth Cayenne. The fruit is more cylindrical and produces many suckers but no slips. |
| − | | + | *'''Kona Sugarloaf''' - 5-6 lbs, white flesh with no woodiness in the center. Cylindrical in shape, it has a high sugar content but no acid. An incredibly delicious fruit. |
| − | * Kona Sugarloaf: 5-6 lbs, white flesh with no woodiness in the center. Cylindrical in shape, it has a high sugar content but no acid. An unusually sweet fruit. | + | *'''Natal Queen''' - 2-3 lbs, golden yellow flesh, crisp texture and delicate mild flavor. Well adapted to fresh consumption. Keeps well after ripening. Leaves spiny. |
| − | | + | *'''Pernambuco (Eleuthera)''' - 2-4 lbs with pale yellow to white flesh. Sweet, melting and excellent for eating fresh. Poorly adapted for shipping. Leaves spiny. |
| − | * Natal Queen: 2-3 lbs, golden yellow flesh, crisp texture and delicate mild flavor. Well adapted to fresh consumption. Keeps well after ripening. Leaves spiny. | + | *'''Red Spanish''' - 2-4 lbs, pale yellow flesh with pleasant aroma; squarish in shape. Well adapted for shipping as fresh fruit to distant markets. Leaves spiny. |
| − | | + | *'''Smooth Cayenne''' - 5-6 lbs, pale yellow to yellow flesh. Cylindrical in shape and with high sugar and acid content. Well adapted to canning and processing. Leaves without spines. This is the variety from Hawaii, and the most easily obtainable in U. S. grocery stores. |
| − | * Pernambuco (Eleuthera): 2-4 lbs with pale yellow to white flesh. Sweet, melting and excellent for eating fresh. Poorly adapted for shipping. Leaves spiny. | |
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| − | * Red Spanish: 2-4 lbs, pale yellow flesh with pleasant aroma; squarish in shape. Well adapted for shipping as fresh fruit to distant markets. Leaves spiny. | |
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| − | * Smooth Cayenne: 5-6 lbs, pale yellow to yellow flesh. Cylindrical in shape and with high sugar and acid content. Well adapted to canning and processing. Leaves without spines. This is the variety from Hawaii, and the most easily obtainable in U.S. grocery stores. Both 73-114 and 73-50 are of this cultivar. | |
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| − | ==Ethnomedical uses==
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| − | The root and fruit are either eaten or applied [[topically]] as an [[anti-inflammatory]] and as a [[proteolytic]] agent. It is traditionally used as an [[antihelminthic]] agent in the [[Philippines]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Monzon | first = R. B. | title = Traditional medicine in the treatment of parasitic diseases in the Philippines | journal = Southeast Asian journal of tropical medicine and public health | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 421–428 | publisher = Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization, Regional Tropical Medicine and Public Health Network, Bangkok, Thailand | date = 1995 | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3030064 | id = {{ISSN|0125-1562}} | accessdate = 2007-02-12}}</ref>
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| − | A root [[decoction]] is used to treat [[diarrhea]].
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| − | ==Diseases of pineapple==
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| − | {{Main|List of pineapple diseases}}
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| − | Pineapples are subject to a variety of diseases,<ref>http://www.apsnet.org/online/common/names/pineappl.asp</ref> the most serious of which is wilt disease vectored by [[mealybug]]s.<ref>Jahn, ''et al.'', 2003</ref> The mealybugs are generally found on the surface of pineapples, but can also be found inside the closed blossom cups.<ref>Jahn, 1995</ref> Other diseases include pink disease,<ref>http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/pineapple/</ref> bacterial heart rot, and [[anthracnose]].
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| − | ==Storage==
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| − | Pineapples, like bananas, are chill-sensitive. Therefore, they should not be stored in the refrigerator. <ref>http://www.foodscience.csiro.au/refrigerated.htm</ref>
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| − | ==Other uses and trivia==
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| − | {{trivia|date=August 2007}}
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| − | [[Image:PineappleMocheLMC.jpg|thumb|right|Moche Pineapple. 200 A.D. [[Larco Museum|Larco Museum Collection]] Lima, Peru.]]
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| − | * The fibers of the pineapple leaf can be extracted to produce the [[piña]] textile.
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| − | * The pineapple is an old symbol of hospitality and can often be seen in carved decorations (untufted pineapples are sometimes mistaken for pine cones).
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| − | * The [[World War II]] Mark 2 [[Mills bomb|hand grenade]] was commonly known as the "pineapple" because of the grooves cut into its surface. Writer [[Ian Fleming]] employed "pineapple" as a slang term for a grenade in his [[James Bond]] novels.
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| − | * It was once thought, especially among college campus circles, that ingesting pineapple products would favorably affect the taste of semen. According to one medical expert, however, this claim is implausible.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.drdrew.com/faq.asp?id=1780 |first=Drew |last=Pinsky |authorlink = Drew Pinsky |title=FAQ: Does pineapple make your semen taste better? |accessdate=2007-02-12 }}</ref>
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| − | * In the TV series ''[[Spongebob Squarepants]]'', Spongebob lives in a pineapple under the sea.
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| − | * ''Pineapple'' is the name of one version of community card [[poker]], very close in play to [[Texas hold 'em]].
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| − | * In order to enjoy pineapple without the painful effects of its acidity on your mouth, simply roll the peeled fruit in a little table salt.
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| − | * The [[Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] worshipped fruits and often depicted pineapple in their art. <ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref>
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| | ==Gallery== | | ==Gallery== |
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| | ==References== | | ==References== |
| − | <references/> | + | *[http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/pineapple.html CRFG Fruit Facts] |
| | + | <!--- xxxxx *Flora: The Gardener's Bible, by Sean Hogan. Global Book Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0881925381 --> |
| | + | <!--- xxxxx *American Horticultural Society: A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants, by Christopher Brickell, Judith D. Zuk. 1996. ISBN 0789419432 --> |
| | + | <!--- xxxxx *Sunset National Garden Book. Sunset Books, Inc., 1997. ISBN 0376038608 --> |
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| | ==External links== | | ==External links== |
| − | {{commons|Ananas comosus}} | + | *{{wplink}} |
| − | {{cookbook}}
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| − | *[http://www.top100plants.com/?p=28 Top100Plants: ''Pineapple'']
| + | [[Category:Categorize]] |
| − | *[http://www.nass.usda.gov/hi/fruit/pine.htm USDA Hawaii Agricultural Statistics] - Pineapple yields 2001-2005
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| − | * [http://www.levins.com/pineapple.html Social History of the Pineapple] - a look at the symbolism behind the pineapple
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| − | *[http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/pineapple.html Pineapple Fruit Facts] - Information on pineapples from California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc.
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| − | *[http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/pn48/pn48p8.htm The price of pineapples] - Pesticide pollution in Costa Rica
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| − | *FAO. [http://www.fao.org/es/esc/en/20953/21038/highlight_26407en.html Tropical Fruits Commodity Notes], 2003
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| − | *Francesca Beauman, 'The Pineapple', ISBN 0-7011-7699-7, publisher Chatto and Windus
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| − | *[http://herbal-medicine.philsite.net/pineapple.htm Pineapple Nutrition]
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| − | *[http://hortchat.com/info/growing-pineapple How to Grow Pineapples]
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| − | *Jahn, G. C. 1990. The role of the big-headed ant in mealybug wilt of pineapple. In G.K. Veeresh, B. Malik, and C. Viraktamath [eds.] "Social Insects and the Environment." Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, 614-615.
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| − | *Jahn, G. C. 1995. Gray pineapple mealybugs, ''Dysmicoccus neobrevipes'' Beardsley, found inside of pineapple fruit. Proc. Hawaiian Entomol. Soc. 32: 147-148.
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| − | *Jahn, Gary C., J. W. Beardsley and H. González-Hernández 2003. A review of the association of ants with mealybug wilt disease of pineapple. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society. 36:9-28.
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| − | [[Category:Bromeliaceae]]
| + | <!-- in order to add all the proper categories, go to http://www.plants.am/wiki/Plant_Categories and copy/paste the contents of the page here, and then follow the easy instructions! --> |
| − | [[Category:Crops originating from the Americas]]
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| − | [[Category:Fruit]]
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| − | [[Category:Accessory fruit]]
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| − | [[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
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