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{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Apple
| image = Koeh-108.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Apple tree (''Malus domestica'')
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Rosales]]
| familia = [[Rosaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Maloideae]]
| genus = ''[[Malus]]''
| species = '''''M. domestica'''''
| binomial = ''Malus domestica''
| binomial_authority = [[Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen|Borkh.]]
}}
The '''apple''' is a [[tree]] and its [[pome|pomaceous]] [[fruit]], of the [[species]] ''Malus domestica'' in the [[rose]] family [[Rosaceae]]. It is one of the most widely [[Cultivation|cultivated]] tree fruits. It is a small [[deciduous]] tree reaching 5-12 m tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[leaf arrangement|alternately]] arranged, simple oval with an acute tip and serrated margin, slightly downy below, 5-12 cm long and 3-6 cm broad on a 2-5 cm petiole. The [[flower]]s are produced in spring with the leaves, white, usually tinged pink at first, 2.5-3.5 cm diameter, with five [[petal]]s. The fruit matures in [[autumn]], and is typically 5-9 cm diameter (rarely up to 15 cm). The centre of the fruit contains five [[carpel]]s arranged star-like, each carpel containing one or two (rarely three) [[seed]]s.
== Origin of name ==
The word 'apple' comes from the Old English word '''æppel''', which in turn has recognisable cognates in a number of the northern branches of the Indo-European language family. The prevailing theory is that 'apple' may be one of the most ancient [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] words (*''abl-'') to come down to English in a recognisable form.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The scientific name ''malus'', on the other hand, comes from the Latin word for apple, and ultimately from the archaic Greek ''mālon'' (''mēlon'' in later dialects). The legendary placename [[Avalon]] is thought to come from a Celtic evolution of the same root as the English 'apple'; the name of the town of [[Avellino]], near [[Naples]] in [[Italy]] is likewise thought to come from the same root via the [[Italic language]]s.
[[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] assigned the apple to the genus ''Pyrus'', along with [[pear]]s and [[quince]]s. Philip Miller subsequently separated the apple into its own genus, a division repeatedly ratified over the years.
==Botanical information==
[[Image:95apple.jpeg|right|thumb|Wild ''[[Malus sieversii]]'' apple in [[Kazakhstan]]]]
[[Image:Sterappel_dwarsdrsn.jpg|right|thumb|Apple cut horizontally, showing seeds]]
The wild [[ancestor]] of ''Malus domestica'' is ''[[Malus sieversii]]''. It has no common name in English, but is known in [[Kazakhstan]], where it is native, as 'alma'; in fact, the region where it is thought to originate is called [[Almaty|Alma-Ata]], or 'father of the apples'. This tree is still found wild in the mountains of [[Central Asia]] in southern Kazakhstan, [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Xinjiang]], [[China]].
For many years, there was a debate about whether ''M. domestica'' evolved from chance hybridisation among various wild species. Recent DNA analysis by Barrie Juniper, Emeritus Fellow in the Department of Plant Sciences at [[Oxford University]] and others, has indicated, however, that the hybridisation theory is probably false. Instead, it appears that a single species still growing in the Ili Valley on the northern slopes of the Tien Shan mountains at the border of northwest China and the former Soviet Republic of Kazakhstan is the progenitor of the apples we eat today. Leaves taken from trees in this area were analyzed for DNA composition, which showed them all to belong to the species ''[[Malus sieversii|M. sieversii]]'', with some genetic sequences common to ''M. domestica''.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Some individual ''M. sieversii'', recently planted by the US government at a research facility, resist many [[#Pests and diseases|diseases and pests]] that affect domestic apples, and are the subject of continuing research to develop new disease-resistant apples.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Other [[species]] that were previously thought to have made contributions to the [[genome]] of the domestic apples are ''[[Malus baccata]]'' and ''[[Malus sylvestris]]'', but there is no hard evidence for this in older apple [[cultivar]]s. These and other ''Malus'' species have been used in some recent breeding programmes to develop apples suitable for growing in climates unsuitable for ''M. domestica'', mainly for increased cold tolerance.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
The apple tree was perhaps the earliest tree to be cultivated, and apples have remained an important food in all cooler climates. To a greater degree than other tree fruit, except possibly [[citrus]], apples store for months while still retaining much of their nutritive value. Winter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing, have been an important food in [[Asia]] and [[Europe]] for millennia, as well as in [[Argentina]] and in the [[United States]] since the [[Immigration to the United States|arrival of Europeans]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
==Apple cultivars==
[[Image:Apples supermarket.jpg|thumb|Different kinds of apple cultivars in a supermarket]]
:''See [[List of apple cultivars]] for a listing.''
There are more than 7,500 known [[cultivar]]s of apples. Different cultivars are available for [[temperate]] and [[subtropical]] climates. Reputedly the world's biggest collection of apple [[cultivar]]s is housed at the [http://brogdale.org/ National Fruit Collection] in [[England]]. Apples do not flower in tropical climates because they have a chilling requirement.
Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desired qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colourful skin, absence of [[Russet apple|russet]]ing, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, typical 'Red Delicious' apple shape, long stem (to allow [[pesticide]]s to penetrate the top of the fruit), and popular flavour.
Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and have a variety of textures and colours. Many of them have excellent flavour (often better than most modern cultivars), but may have other problems which make them commercially unviable, such as low yield, liability to disease, or poor tolerance for storage or transport. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been kept alive by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance are out there to discover; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. In the [[United Kingdom]] old cultivars such as Cox's Orange Pippin and Egremont Russett are still commercially important even though by modern standards they are low yielding and disease prone.
Although most cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), some are cultivated specifically for cooking ([[cooking apple]]s) or producing [[cider]]. [[Cider apple]]s are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavour that dessert apples cannot.
Modern apples are, as a rule, sweeter than older cultivars. Most [[North America]]ns and [[Europe]]ans favour sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following. Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavour are popular in [[Asia]] and especially India.
Tastes in apples vary from one person to another and change continually over time. As an example, the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington#Agriculture|Washington]] made its reputation for apple growing on Red Delicious. In recent years, many apple connoisseurs have come to regard the Red Delicious as inferior to cultivars such as Fuji and Gala due to its merely mild flavour and insufficiently firm texture.
==Growing Apples==
===Apple breeding===
[[Image:Cyborglog-of-eating-old-apple-d360.jpg|thumb|right|In this hybrid of an orchard apple with a red-fruited crabapple cultivar, the pulp is of the same colour as the peel.]]
[[Image:Old-appleseed-d402.jpg|thumb|right|Seeds of the above apple, which are same colour as the rest of the fruit.]]
Like most perennial fruits, apples are ordinarily propagated asexually by [[grafting]]. Seedling apples are different from their parents, sometimes radically. Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics. The words 'seedling', 'pippin', and 'kernel' in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form [[bud sport]]s (mutations on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars.
Some breeders have crossed ordinary apples with [[Malus|crabapples]] or unusually hardy apples in order to produce [[hardiness|hardier]] cultivars. For example, the Excelsior Experiment Station of the [[University of Minnesota]] has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by backyard orchardists, throughout [[Minnesota]] and [[Wisconsin]]. Its most important introductions have included '[[Haralson (apple)|Haralson]]' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and '[[Honeycrisp]]'.
===Starting an orchard===
Apple orchards are established by planting trees two to four year old. These small trees are usually purchased from a [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery]] where they are produced by [[Fruit tree propagation|grafting or budding]]. First, a [[rootstock]] is produced either as a seedling or cloned using tissue culture or layering. This is allowed to grow for a year. Then, a small section of branch called a [[scion]] is obtained from a mature apple tree of the desired cultivar. The upper stem and branches of the rootstock are cut away and replaced with the scion. In time, the two sections grow together and produce a healthy [[tree]].
Rootstocks affect the ultimate size of the tree. While many rootstocks are available to commercial growers, those sold to homeowners who want just a few trees are usually one of two cultivars; a standard seedling rootstock that gives a full-size tree, or a semi-dwarf rootstock that produces a somewhat smaller tree. [[Dwarf]] rootstocks are generally more susceptible to damage from wind and cold. Full dwarf trees are often supported of posts or trellises and planted in high density orchards which are much simpler to culture and greatly increase productivity per unit of land.
There has been limited research into growing apples on their own roots (i.e. without a [[rootstock]])in [[England]] this was initiated by Hugh Ermen at Brogdale, Kent and has been carried on by [http://www.cooltemperate.co.uk/own_root.shtml Phil Corbett] in Nottinghamshire. Some of the supposed benefits are greater disease resistance and better flavour.
[[Image:Apple orchard.jpg|right|thumb|Apple orchard]]
[[Image:Orchard3.jpg|thumb|right|A community apple orchard originally planted for productive use during the 1920s, in [[Westcliff on Sea]] ([[Essex]], [[England]])]]
Some trees are produced with a dwarfing 'interstem' between a standard rootstock and the tree, resulting in two grafts.
After the small tree is planted in the orchard, it must grow for 3-5 years (semi-dwarf) or 4-10 years (standard trees) before it will bear sizeable amounts of [[fruit]]. Good training of limbs and careful nipping of buds growing in the wrong places, are extremely important during this time, to build a good scaffold that will later support a fruit load.
===Location===
Apples are relatively indifferent to [[soil]] conditions and will grow in a wide range of [[pH]] values and fertility levels. They do require some protection from the wind and should not be planted in low areas that are prone to late spring [[frost]]s. Apples do require good drainage, and heavy soils or flat land should be [[drainage|tilled]] to make certain that the root systems are never in saturated soil.
===Pollination===
Apples are self-incompatible and must be [[Pollination|cross-pollinated]] to develop fruit. [[Pollination management]] is an important component of apple culture. Before planting, it is important to arrange for [[pollenizer]]s, cultivars of apple or crab apple that provide plentiful, viable and compatible pollen. Orchard blocks may alternate rows of compatible cultivars, or may have periodic crab apple trees, or grafted-on limbs of crab apple. Some cultivars produce very little pollen, or the pollen is sterile, so these are not good pollenizers. Quality nurseries have pollenizer compatibility lists.
Growers with old orchard blocks of single cultivars sometimes provide bouquets of crab apple blossoms in drums or pails in the orchard for pollenizers. Home growers with a single tree, and no other cultivars in the neighbourhood can do the same on a smaller scale.
During the flowering each season, apple growers usually provide [[pollinator]]s to carry the pollen. [[Honeybee]] hives are most commonly used, and arrangements may be made with a commercial beekeeper who supplies hives for a fee. [[Megachilidae|Orchard mason bee]]s are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Home growers may find these more acceptable in suburban locations because they do not sting. Some wild bees such as [[carpenter bee]]s and other [[solitary bee]]s may help. [[Bumble bee]] [[queen bee|queen]]s are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinators.
Symptoms of inadequate pollination are excessive fruit drop (when marble sized), small and misshapen apples, slowness to ripen, and low seed count. Well pollinated apples are the best quality, and will have 7 to 10 seeds. Apples having fewer than 3 seeds will usually not mature and will drop from the trees in the early summer. Inadequate pollination can result from either a lack of pollinators or pollenizers, or from poor pollinating weather at flowering time. It generally requires multiple bee visits to deliver sufficient grains of pollen to accomplish complete pollination.
[[Image:Apple blossoms04.jpg|thumb|Apple tree in flower]]
A common problem is a late frost that destroys the delicate outer structures of the flower. It is best to plant apples on a slope for air drainage, but not on a south facing slope (in the northern hemisphere) as this will encourage early flowering and increase susceptibility to frost. If the frost is not too severe, the tree can be wetted with water spray before the morning sun hits the flowers, and it may save them. Frost damage can be evaluated 24 hours after the frost. If the [[Carpel|pistil]] has turned black, the flower is ruined and will not produce fruit.
Growing apples near a body of water can give an advantage by slowing spring warm up, which retards flowering until frost is less likely. In some areas of the USA, such as the eastern shore of [[Lake Michigan]], the southern shore of [[Lake Ontario]], and around some smaller lakes, this cooling effect of water, combined with good, well-drained soils, has made apple growing concentrations possible. However, the cool, humid spring weather in such locations can also increase problems with fungal diseases, notably [[apple scab]]; many of the most important apple-growing regions (e.g. northern China, central Turkey, and eastern Washington in the USA) have climates more like the species' native region well away from the sea or any lakes, with cold winters leading to a short, but warm spring with low risk of frost.
Home growers may not have a body of water to help, but can utilise north slopes or other geographical features to retard spring flowering. Apples (or any fruit) planted on a south facing slope in the northern hemisphere (or north facing in the southern hemisphere), will flower early and be particularly vulnerable to spring f
rost.
===Pollination groups===
There are four to seven pollination groups in apples depending on climate :
* Group A – Early flowering, May 1 to 3 in England ([[Gravenstein]], [[Red Astrachan]])
* Group B – May 4 to 7 ([[Idared]], [[McIntosh]])
* Group C – Mid-season flowering, May 8 to 11 ([[Granny Smith]], [[Cox's Orange Pippin]])
* Group D – Mid/Late season flowering, May 12 to 15 ([[Golden Delicious]], [[Calville Blanc d'Hiver]]).
* Group E – Late flowering, May 16 to 18 ([[Braeburn]], [[Reinette d'Orléans]])
* Group F – May 19 to 23 ([[Suntan]])
* Group G – May 24 to 28 ([[Court Pendu Plat]])
One cultivar can be pollinized by a compatible cultivar from the same group or close (A with A or A with B but not A with C or D). Late groups are better to avoid frost in cold areas.
===Thinning===
Apples are prone to [[biennial bearing]]. If the fruit is not thinned when the tree carries a large crop, it may produce very little flower the following year. Good thinning helps even out the cycle, so that a reasonable crop can be grown every year.
Commercial orchardists practice chemical thinning, which is not practical for home fruit. Apples bear in groups of five (or more rarely six) blossoms. The first blossom to open is called the ''king bloom''. It will produce the best possible apple of the five. If it sets, it tends to suppress setting of the other blossoms, which, if they set anyway, should be removed. The next three blossoms tend to bloom and set simultaneously, therefore there is no dominance. All but one of these should be thinned for best quality. If the final blossom is the only one that sets, the crop will not be as good, but it will help reduce excessive woody growth (suckering) that usually happens when there is no crop.
===Maturation and harvest===
Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, will grow very large, which allows them to bear a great deal more fruit, but makes harvest very difficult. Mature trees typically bear 40-200 kg of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. Dwarf trees will bear about 10-80 kg of fruit per year.
===Pests and diseases===
{{Main|List of apple diseases}}
[[Image:Apple tree leaves with insect damage.jpg|thumb|right|Leaves with significant insect damage.]]
The trees are susceptible to a number of [[fungus|fungal]] and [[bacterium|bacteria]]l diseases and [[insect]] pests. Nearly all commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orchard management is the use of [[Integrated Pest Management]] (IPM), which reduces needless spraying when pests are not present, or more likely, are being controlled by natural [[predator]]s.
Spraying for insect pests must never be done during flowering because it kills pollinators. Nor should bee-attractive plants be allowed to establish in the orchard floor if insecticides are used. [[White clover]] is a component of many grass seed mixes, and many bees are poisoned by insecticides while visiting the flowers on the orchard floor.
Among the most serious disease problems are [[fireblight]], a bacterial disease; and ''[[Gymnosporangium]]'' rust, [[apple scab]], and [[Black Spot (disease)|black spot]], three fungal diseases.
The [[plum curculio]] is the most serious insect pest. Others include [[Apple maggot]] and [[codling moth]]. For other [[Lepidoptera]] [[larva]]e which feed on apple trees, see [[List of Lepidoptera which feed on Malus]].
Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft bark of the trees, especially in winter. Growers usually sheath juvenile trees with wire mesh to protect them.
Apples are difficult to grow organically, though a few orchards have done so with commercial success, using disease-resistant cultivars and the very best cultural controls. The latest tool in the organic repertoire is to spray a light coating of [[kaolin]] clay, which forms a physical barrier to some pests, and also helps prevent apple sun scald.
==Commerce and uses==
[[Image:Apples.jpg|thumb|right|A display of different apples]]
45 million tons of apples were grown worldwide in 2002, with a value of about 10 billion USD. [[China]] produced almost half of this total. [[Argentina]] is the second leading producer, with more than 15% of the world production. The [[United States]] is the third leading producer, accounting for 7.5% of world production. [[Turkey]] is also a leading producer. [[France]], [[Italy]], [[South Africa]] and [[Chile]] are among the leading apple exporters.
In the [[United States]], more than 60% of all the apples sold commercially are grown in [[Washington]] state. Imported apples from [[New Zealand]] and other more temperate areas are competing with US production and increasing each year.
Apples can be canned, juiced, and optionally fermented to produce [[apple juice]], [[cider]], [[vinegar]], and [[pectin]]. Distilled apple cider produces the [[alcoholic beverage|spirits]] [[applejack]] and [[Calvados (spirit)|Calvados]]. [[Apple wine]] can also be made. They make a popular lunchbox fruit as well.
Apples are an important ingredient in many winter [[dessert]]s, for example [[apple pie]], apple [[crumble]], [[apple crisp]] and [[apple cake]]. They are often eaten [[baked]] or [[stewed]], and they can also be dried and eaten or re-constituted (soaked in water, alcohol or some other liquid) for later use. Puréed apples are generally known as [[apple sauce]]. Apples are also made into [[apple butter]] and apple jelly. They are also used cooked in meat dishes.
*In the UK, a [[toffee apple]] is a traditional confection made by coating an apple in hot [[toffee]] and allowing it to cool. Similar treats in the US are [[candy apple]]s (coated in a hard shell of crystallised sugar syrup), and [[caramel apples]], coated with cooled [[caramel]].
*Apples are eaten with honey at the Jewish New Year of [[Rosh Hashanah]] to symbolise a sweet new year.
*Farms with apple orchards may open them to the public, so consumers may themselves pick the apples they will buy.
==Health benefits==
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Apples, with skin (edible parts) | kJ=218 | protein=0.26 g | fat=0.17 g | carbs=13.81 g | fiber=2.4 g | | sugars=10.39 g | iron_mg=0.12 | calcium_mg=6 | magnesium_mg=5 | phosphorus_mg=11 | potassium_mg=107 | zinc_mg=0.04 | vitC_mg=4.6 | pantothenic_mg=0.061 | vitB6_mg=0.041 | folate_ug=3 | thiamin_mg=0.017 | riboflavin_mg=0.026 | niacin_mg=0.091 | right=1 | source_usda=1 }}
{{Details|Nutritional information about the apple}}
An old [[proverb]] attests to the health benefits of the fruit: "''An apple a day keeps the doctor away.''" Research suggests that apples may reduce the risk of [[colon cancer]], [[prostate cancer]] and [[lung cancer]].<ref>[http://cancer.stanford.edu/information/nutritionAndCancer/reduceRisk/ Information about cancer], from Stanford comprehensive cancer center.</ref> Like many fruits, apples contain [[Vitamin C]] as well as a host of other [[antioxidant]] compounds, which may reduce the risk of cancer by preventing [[DNA]] damage. The fibre content, while less than in most other fruits, helps regulate bowel movements and may thus reduce the risk of colon cancer. They may also help with [[heart disease]], [[weight loss]] and controlling [[cholesterol]], as they do not have any cholesterol, have fibre (which reduces cholesterol by preventing reabsorption), and are bulky for their caloric content like most fruits and vegetables.
A group of chemicals in apples could protect the brain from the type of damage that triggers such [[neurodegenerative disease]]s as [[Alzheimer's]] and [[Parkinsonism]]. Chang Y. 'Cy' Lee of the [[Cornell University]] found that the apple [[phenolic]]s, which are naturally occurring [[antioxidants]] found in fresh apples, can protect [[nerve cell]]s from neurotoxicity induced by [[oxidative stress]]. The researchers used red delicious apples from New York State to provide the extracts to study the effects of [[phytochemicals]]. Lee said that all apples are high in the critical [[phytonutrient]]s and that the amount of phenolic compounds in the apple flesh and in the skin vary from year to year, season to season and from growing region to growing region (November/December 2004 issue of the Journal of Food Science). The predominant phenolic phytochemicals in apples are [[quercetin]], [[epicatechin]], and [[procyanidin]] B2 (PMID 14558772).
The [[seed]]s are mildly poisonous, containing a small amount of [[amygdalin]], a [[cyanide|cyanogenic]] [[glycoside]], but a large amount would need to be chewed to have any toxic effect.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rawveg.info/rawfoodtoxins.html | title=Raw Food Toxins | RawVeg.info | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref>
[[Pesticide]] contamination is linked to an increasing number of diseases, and they are mostly found on the outside of fruits and vegetables. Washing or peeling before eating may reduce pesticide intake<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/toddlers_exposed_to_daily_29072004.html | title=Friends of the Earth: Press Releases: Toddlers Exposed to Daily Pesticide Threat | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref> but peeling will also reduce the intake of the beneficial nutrients.
Apple consumption can help remove trapped food and clean between the teeth, but the [[malic acid]] contained within the fruit is also capable of eroding [[tooth enamel]] over time, and through excess consumption.
==Cultural aspects==
===Apples as symbols===
Apples appear in many [[World religions|religious traditions]], often as a mystical and [[forbidden fruit]]. Though the forbidden fruit in the book of ''[[Genesis]]'' is not identified, popular European [[Christianity|Christian]] tradition has held that it was an apple that [[Adam and Eve|Eve]] coaxed [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] to share with her. As a result, in the story of Adam and Eve the apple became a symbol for temptation, the fall of man into sin, and sin itself. In [[Latin]], the words for 'apple' and for '[[evil]]' are similar in the singular (''malus'' — apple, ''malum'' — evil) and identical in the plural (''mala''). This may be the reason that the apple was interpreted as the [[Bible|biblical]] 'forbidden fruit'. The [[larynx]] in the human throat has been called [[Adam's apple]] because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in the throat of Adam.
[[Image:Two Young Men, Crispin van den Broeck.jpg|thumb|right|240px|'''Two Young Men''' <br>In this painting modern interpreters have viewed the apple alternately as an ironic twist on Christian symbology intended by the painter as a sexual innuendo between two men [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Museum/Europe/deBroeck.htm], or as a ''[[memento mori]]'' [http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/pharos/collection_pages/northern_pages/PD_20_1961/TXT_SE-PD201961.html]. <br>[[Crispin van den Broeck]] (Dutch), ca. 1590; Oil on panel; Fitzwilliam Museum, [[Cambridge]].]]
This notion of the apple as a symbol of sin is reflected in artistic renderings of the fall from [[Eden]]. When held in Adam's hand, the apple symbolises sin. However, when [[Christ]] is portrayed holding an apple, he represents the Second Adam who brings life. This also reflects the evolution of the symbol in Christianity. In the [[Old Testament]] the apple was significant of the fall of man; in the [[New Testament]] it is an emblem of the redemption from that fall, and as such is also represented in pictures of [[the Madonna]] and [[Infant Jesus]].
There are several instances in the Old Testament where the apple is used in a more favourable light. The phrase 'the apple of your eye' comes from verses in Deuteronomy 32:10, Psalm 17:8 Proverbs 7:2, and Zechariah 2:8 implying an object or person greatly valued. In [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] 25:11, the verse states, "''a word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in settings of silver''". In the love songs of the [[Song of Solomon]], the apple is used in a sensual context. I
n these latter instances the apple is used as a symbol for beauty. The apple appears again in Joel 1:12 in a verse with a sense of profound loss when the apple tree withers.
At times artists would co-opt the apple, as well as other religious symbology, whether for ironic effect or as a stock element of symbolic vocabulary. Thus, secular art as well made use of the apple as symbol of love and sexuality. It is often an attribute associated with [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] who is shown holding it.
===Apples in mythology===
[[Image:Durer Adam and Eve.jpg|thumb|right|180px|'''Adam and Eve'''<br>A classic depiction of the biblical tale showcasing the apple as a symbol of sin.<br>[[Albrecht Dürer]], 1507; Oil on panel; 209 x 81 cm (per panel); Museo Nacional del Prado, [[Madrid]].[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/durer/].]]
The [[Greek hero]] [[Heracles]], as a part of his [[Heracles#The Twelve Labours|Twelve Labours]], was required to travel to the [[Hesperides#The Garden of the Hesperides|Garden of the Hesperides]] and pick the [[golden apple]]s off the [[Tree of Life]] growing at its center.
The Greek goddess of discord, [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]], became disgruntled after she was excluded from the wedding of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]]. In retaliation, she tossed a golden apple inscribed [[Kallisti]] ('For the most beautiful one'), into the wedding party. Three goddesses claimed the apple: [[Hera]], [[Athena]], and [[Aphrodite]]. [[Paris]] of [[Troy]] was appointed to select the recipient. After being bribed by both Hera and Athena, Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world, [[Helen]] of [[Sparta]]. He awarded the apple to Aphrodite, thus indirectly causing the [[Trojan War]].
[[Atalanta]], also of Greek mythology, raced all her suitors in an attempt to avoid marriage. She outran all but [[Hippomenes]], who defeated her by cunning, not speed. Hippomenes knew that he could not win in a fair race, so he used three golden apples to distract Atalanta. It took all three apples and all of his speed, but Hippomenes was finally successful, winning the race and Atalanta's hand.
In [[Norse mythology]], the goddess [[Iðunn]] was the appointed keeper of apples that kept the [[Æsir]] young forever. Iðunn was abducted by [[Þjazi]] the [[Jotun|giant]], who used [[Loki]] to lure Iðunn and her apples out of [[Asgard|Ásgarðr]]. The Æsir began to age without Iðunn's apples, so they coerced Loki into rescuing her. After borrowing [[Freya|Freyja's]] falcon skin, Loki liberated Iðunn from Þjazi by transforming her into a nut for the flight back. Þjazi gave chase in the form of an eagle, where upon reaching Ásgarðr he was set aflame by a bonfire lit by the Æsir. With the return of Iðunn's apples, the Æsir regained their lost youth.
[[Celtic mythology]] includes a story about [[Conle]] who receives an apple which feeds him for a year but also gives him an irresistible desire for [[Fairyland]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
===Legends, folklore, and traditions===
* Since [[1990]], [[Apple Day]] has been held across the UK and beyond, on [[October 21]]
*[[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[folklore]] holds that [[William Tell]] courageously shot an apple from his son's head with his crossbow, defying a tyrannical ruler and bringing freedom to his people.
*[[Ireland|Irish]] folklore claims that if an apple is peeled into one continuous ribbon and thrown behind a woman's shoulder, it will land in the shape of the future husband's initials.
*[[Denmark|Danish]] folklore says that apples wither around adulterers.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*Apples are said to increase a woman's chances of [[Fertilisation#Human fertilisation|conception]] as well as remove [[birthmarks]] when rubbed on the skin.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*According to a popular legend, [[Isaac Newton]], upon witnessing an apple fall from its tree, was inspired to conclude that a similar [[gravity|'universal gravitation']] attracted the moon toward the Earth as well (this legend is discussed in more detail in the article on Isaac Newton).
*In the European fairy tale ''[[Snow White]]'', the princess is killed, or sunk into a kind of coma with the appearance of death, by choking on a poisoned apple given to her by her stepmother. Later, the princess is jostled into coughing up the piece, miraculously returning her to life.
* In [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian legend]], the mythical isle of [[Avalon|Avalon's]] name is believed to mean 'isle of apples'.
*In some places, [[bobbing for apples]] is a traditional [[Halloween]] activity.<ref>[http://wilstar.com/holidays/hallown.htm History and customs of Halloween]</ref>
*In the [[United States]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]], an apple (polished) is a traditional gift for a teacher. This stemmed from the fact that teachers during the 16th to 18th centuries were poorly paid, so parents would compensate the teacher by providing food. As apples were a very common crop, teachers would often be given baskets of apples by students. As wages increased, the quantity of apples was toned down to a single fruit.
* The [[Apple Wassail]] is a traditional form of [[wassailing]] practiced in [[cider]] [[orchards]] of [[South West England]] during the winter. The ceremony is said to 'bless' the apple trees to produce a good crop in the forthcoming season.
* In [[Ancient Greece]], a man throwing an apple to a woman was a proposal of marriage. Catching it meant she accepted {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
===Apple facts===
[[Image:Apple-logo.png|thumb|right|100px|Apple, Inc. logo]]
*The ancient [[Kazakhstan|Kazakh]] city of [[Almaty]], 'Father of Apples' ([[Turkic language]] alma, apple, + ata, father), owes its name to the forests of wild apples (''Malus sieversii'') found naturally in the area.
*The apple blossom is the [[state flower]] of [[Arkansas]] and [[Michigan]].
*The Norwegian municipality of [[Leikanger]] has apples in its coat-of-arms.
*The name of the Russian party [[Yabloko]] means 'apple'. Its logo represents an apple in the [[constructivism (art)|constructivist]] style.
*[[Apple Corps]] (including [[Apple Records]]) and [[Apple Inc.]] have also adopted the apple as logos for their companies.
* The 'fruit-bearing tree' referred to by [[Tacitus]] in his description of Norse [[Runes#Magic and Divination|runic divination]] may have been the apple.
*[[Johnny Appleseed]] was an [[United States|American]] pioneer orchardist; he earned his name by planting apple trees across large swaths of [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], and [[Illinois]].
* One of the youngest apple varieties is Aurora Golden Gala (2003),<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.agr.gc.ca/cb/index_e.php?s1=n&s2=2003&page=n31002b | title=AAFC Online — Newsroom — News Releases | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref> a sweet yellow Canadian apple; while one of the oldest apples in the United States may be the Roxbury Russet (1640).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.beardsleyscidermill.com/apple.html | title=Beardsley's Cider Mill | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref>
*There is a small amount of cyanide in apple seeds
*[[Cary Fowler]], executive secretary of the [[Global Crop Diversity Trust]], said in a statement:
:"''At the end of the 1800s, 7,000 named apple varieties were grown in the United States. Now, 6,800 of those are as extinct as the dinosaurs.''"<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.spacewar.com/2006/060619095826.cl6whipe.html | title=Work on biodiversity 'doomsday vault' begins in the Arctic | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref>
==Apples as food==
Different cultivars of apples have a distinct different taste, and this can be separated into two separate factors of flavour and texture.
==See also==
* [[Apple picking]]
* [[wikt:apple seed|Apple seed]]
* [[Cooking apple]]
* [[Cider apple]]
* [[Fruit tree propagation]]
* [[Fruit tree pollination]]
* [[Fruit tree forms]]
* [[Herefordshire Pomona]]
* [[List of apple cultivars]]
* [[Nutritional information about the apple]]
* [[Pruning fruit trees]]
==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>
==External links ==
{{Wiktionary}} {{Commons|Apple}} {{Cookbook|Apple}}
* [http://www.usapple.org/consumers/appleguide/guide.cfm#braeburnU.S Apple A
ssociation Guide] with some years and places of cultivar origins
* [http://www.ifr.bbsrc.ac.uk/public/FoodInfoSheets/applefacts.html Apple Facts] from the UK's [[Institute of Food Research]]
* [http://www.commonground.org.uk Common Ground (for Apple Day)]
{{Apples}}
[[Category:Apples| ]]
[[Category:Grocer's Encyclopedia]]
| color = lightgreen
| name = Apple
| image = Koeh-108.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Apple tree (''Malus domestica'')
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Rosales]]
| familia = [[Rosaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Maloideae]]
| genus = ''[[Malus]]''
| species = '''''M. domestica'''''
| binomial = ''Malus domestica''
| binomial_authority = [[Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen|Borkh.]]
}}
The '''apple''' is a [[tree]] and its [[pome|pomaceous]] [[fruit]], of the [[species]] ''Malus domestica'' in the [[rose]] family [[Rosaceae]]. It is one of the most widely [[Cultivation|cultivated]] tree fruits. It is a small [[deciduous]] tree reaching 5-12 m tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[leaf arrangement|alternately]] arranged, simple oval with an acute tip and serrated margin, slightly downy below, 5-12 cm long and 3-6 cm broad on a 2-5 cm petiole. The [[flower]]s are produced in spring with the leaves, white, usually tinged pink at first, 2.5-3.5 cm diameter, with five [[petal]]s. The fruit matures in [[autumn]], and is typically 5-9 cm diameter (rarely up to 15 cm). The centre of the fruit contains five [[carpel]]s arranged star-like, each carpel containing one or two (rarely three) [[seed]]s.
== Origin of name ==
The word 'apple' comes from the Old English word '''æppel''', which in turn has recognisable cognates in a number of the northern branches of the Indo-European language family. The prevailing theory is that 'apple' may be one of the most ancient [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] words (*''abl-'') to come down to English in a recognisable form.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The scientific name ''malus'', on the other hand, comes from the Latin word for apple, and ultimately from the archaic Greek ''mālon'' (''mēlon'' in later dialects). The legendary placename [[Avalon]] is thought to come from a Celtic evolution of the same root as the English 'apple'; the name of the town of [[Avellino]], near [[Naples]] in [[Italy]] is likewise thought to come from the same root via the [[Italic language]]s.
[[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] assigned the apple to the genus ''Pyrus'', along with [[pear]]s and [[quince]]s. Philip Miller subsequently separated the apple into its own genus, a division repeatedly ratified over the years.
==Botanical information==
[[Image:95apple.jpeg|right|thumb|Wild ''[[Malus sieversii]]'' apple in [[Kazakhstan]]]]
[[Image:Sterappel_dwarsdrsn.jpg|right|thumb|Apple cut horizontally, showing seeds]]
The wild [[ancestor]] of ''Malus domestica'' is ''[[Malus sieversii]]''. It has no common name in English, but is known in [[Kazakhstan]], where it is native, as 'alma'; in fact, the region where it is thought to originate is called [[Almaty|Alma-Ata]], or 'father of the apples'. This tree is still found wild in the mountains of [[Central Asia]] in southern Kazakhstan, [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Xinjiang]], [[China]].
For many years, there was a debate about whether ''M. domestica'' evolved from chance hybridisation among various wild species. Recent DNA analysis by Barrie Juniper, Emeritus Fellow in the Department of Plant Sciences at [[Oxford University]] and others, has indicated, however, that the hybridisation theory is probably false. Instead, it appears that a single species still growing in the Ili Valley on the northern slopes of the Tien Shan mountains at the border of northwest China and the former Soviet Republic of Kazakhstan is the progenitor of the apples we eat today. Leaves taken from trees in this area were analyzed for DNA composition, which showed them all to belong to the species ''[[Malus sieversii|M. sieversii]]'', with some genetic sequences common to ''M. domestica''.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Some individual ''M. sieversii'', recently planted by the US government at a research facility, resist many [[#Pests and diseases|diseases and pests]] that affect domestic apples, and are the subject of continuing research to develop new disease-resistant apples.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Other [[species]] that were previously thought to have made contributions to the [[genome]] of the domestic apples are ''[[Malus baccata]]'' and ''[[Malus sylvestris]]'', but there is no hard evidence for this in older apple [[cultivar]]s. These and other ''Malus'' species have been used in some recent breeding programmes to develop apples suitable for growing in climates unsuitable for ''M. domestica'', mainly for increased cold tolerance.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
The apple tree was perhaps the earliest tree to be cultivated, and apples have remained an important food in all cooler climates. To a greater degree than other tree fruit, except possibly [[citrus]], apples store for months while still retaining much of their nutritive value. Winter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing, have been an important food in [[Asia]] and [[Europe]] for millennia, as well as in [[Argentina]] and in the [[United States]] since the [[Immigration to the United States|arrival of Europeans]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
==Apple cultivars==
[[Image:Apples supermarket.jpg|thumb|Different kinds of apple cultivars in a supermarket]]
:''See [[List of apple cultivars]] for a listing.''
There are more than 7,500 known [[cultivar]]s of apples. Different cultivars are available for [[temperate]] and [[subtropical]] climates. Reputedly the world's biggest collection of apple [[cultivar]]s is housed at the [http://brogdale.org/ National Fruit Collection] in [[England]]. Apples do not flower in tropical climates because they have a chilling requirement.
Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desired qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colourful skin, absence of [[Russet apple|russet]]ing, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, typical 'Red Delicious' apple shape, long stem (to allow [[pesticide]]s to penetrate the top of the fruit), and popular flavour.
Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and have a variety of textures and colours. Many of them have excellent flavour (often better than most modern cultivars), but may have other problems which make them commercially unviable, such as low yield, liability to disease, or poor tolerance for storage or transport. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been kept alive by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance are out there to discover; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. In the [[United Kingdom]] old cultivars such as Cox's Orange Pippin and Egremont Russett are still commercially important even though by modern standards they are low yielding and disease prone.
Although most cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), some are cultivated specifically for cooking ([[cooking apple]]s) or producing [[cider]]. [[Cider apple]]s are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavour that dessert apples cannot.
Modern apples are, as a rule, sweeter than older cultivars. Most [[North America]]ns and [[Europe]]ans favour sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following. Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavour are popular in [[Asia]] and especially India.
Tastes in apples vary from one person to another and change continually over time. As an example, the [[U.S. state]] of [[Washington#Agriculture|Washington]] made its reputation for apple growing on Red Delicious. In recent years, many apple connoisseurs have come to regard the Red Delicious as inferior to cultivars such as Fuji and Gala due to its merely mild flavour and insufficiently firm texture.
==Growing Apples==
===Apple breeding===
[[Image:Cyborglog-of-eating-old-apple-d360.jpg|thumb|right|In this hybrid of an orchard apple with a red-fruited crabapple cultivar, the pulp is of the same colour as the peel.]]
[[Image:Old-appleseed-d402.jpg|thumb|right|Seeds of the above apple, which are same colour as the rest of the fruit.]]
Like most perennial fruits, apples are ordinarily propagated asexually by [[grafting]]. Seedling apples are different from their parents, sometimes radically. Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics. The words 'seedling', 'pippin', and 'kernel' in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form [[bud sport]]s (mutations on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars.
Some breeders have crossed ordinary apples with [[Malus|crabapples]] or unusually hardy apples in order to produce [[hardiness|hardier]] cultivars. For example, the Excelsior Experiment Station of the [[University of Minnesota]] has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by backyard orchardists, throughout [[Minnesota]] and [[Wisconsin]]. Its most important introductions have included '[[Haralson (apple)|Haralson]]' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and '[[Honeycrisp]]'.
===Starting an orchard===
Apple orchards are established by planting trees two to four year old. These small trees are usually purchased from a [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery]] where they are produced by [[Fruit tree propagation|grafting or budding]]. First, a [[rootstock]] is produced either as a seedling or cloned using tissue culture or layering. This is allowed to grow for a year. Then, a small section of branch called a [[scion]] is obtained from a mature apple tree of the desired cultivar. The upper stem and branches of the rootstock are cut away and replaced with the scion. In time, the two sections grow together and produce a healthy [[tree]].
Rootstocks affect the ultimate size of the tree. While many rootstocks are available to commercial growers, those sold to homeowners who want just a few trees are usually one of two cultivars; a standard seedling rootstock that gives a full-size tree, or a semi-dwarf rootstock that produces a somewhat smaller tree. [[Dwarf]] rootstocks are generally more susceptible to damage from wind and cold. Full dwarf trees are often supported of posts or trellises and planted in high density orchards which are much simpler to culture and greatly increase productivity per unit of land.
There has been limited research into growing apples on their own roots (i.e. without a [[rootstock]])in [[England]] this was initiated by Hugh Ermen at Brogdale, Kent and has been carried on by [http://www.cooltemperate.co.uk/own_root.shtml Phil Corbett] in Nottinghamshire. Some of the supposed benefits are greater disease resistance and better flavour.
[[Image:Apple orchard.jpg|right|thumb|Apple orchard]]
[[Image:Orchard3.jpg|thumb|right|A community apple orchard originally planted for productive use during the 1920s, in [[Westcliff on Sea]] ([[Essex]], [[England]])]]
Some trees are produced with a dwarfing 'interstem' between a standard rootstock and the tree, resulting in two grafts.
After the small tree is planted in the orchard, it must grow for 3-5 years (semi-dwarf) or 4-10 years (standard trees) before it will bear sizeable amounts of [[fruit]]. Good training of limbs and careful nipping of buds growing in the wrong places, are extremely important during this time, to build a good scaffold that will later support a fruit load.
===Location===
Apples are relatively indifferent to [[soil]] conditions and will grow in a wide range of [[pH]] values and fertility levels. They do require some protection from the wind and should not be planted in low areas that are prone to late spring [[frost]]s. Apples do require good drainage, and heavy soils or flat land should be [[drainage|tilled]] to make certain that the root systems are never in saturated soil.
===Pollination===
Apples are self-incompatible and must be [[Pollination|cross-pollinated]] to develop fruit. [[Pollination management]] is an important component of apple culture. Before planting, it is important to arrange for [[pollenizer]]s, cultivars of apple or crab apple that provide plentiful, viable and compatible pollen. Orchard blocks may alternate rows of compatible cultivars, or may have periodic crab apple trees, or grafted-on limbs of crab apple. Some cultivars produce very little pollen, or the pollen is sterile, so these are not good pollenizers. Quality nurseries have pollenizer compatibility lists.
Growers with old orchard blocks of single cultivars sometimes provide bouquets of crab apple blossoms in drums or pails in the orchard for pollenizers. Home growers with a single tree, and no other cultivars in the neighbourhood can do the same on a smaller scale.
During the flowering each season, apple growers usually provide [[pollinator]]s to carry the pollen. [[Honeybee]] hives are most commonly used, and arrangements may be made with a commercial beekeeper who supplies hives for a fee. [[Megachilidae|Orchard mason bee]]s are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Home growers may find these more acceptable in suburban locations because they do not sting. Some wild bees such as [[carpenter bee]]s and other [[solitary bee]]s may help. [[Bumble bee]] [[queen bee|queen]]s are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinators.
Symptoms of inadequate pollination are excessive fruit drop (when marble sized), small and misshapen apples, slowness to ripen, and low seed count. Well pollinated apples are the best quality, and will have 7 to 10 seeds. Apples having fewer than 3 seeds will usually not mature and will drop from the trees in the early summer. Inadequate pollination can result from either a lack of pollinators or pollenizers, or from poor pollinating weather at flowering time. It generally requires multiple bee visits to deliver sufficient grains of pollen to accomplish complete pollination.
[[Image:Apple blossoms04.jpg|thumb|Apple tree in flower]]
A common problem is a late frost that destroys the delicate outer structures of the flower. It is best to plant apples on a slope for air drainage, but not on a south facing slope (in the northern hemisphere) as this will encourage early flowering and increase susceptibility to frost. If the frost is not too severe, the tree can be wetted with water spray before the morning sun hits the flowers, and it may save them. Frost damage can be evaluated 24 hours after the frost. If the [[Carpel|pistil]] has turned black, the flower is ruined and will not produce fruit.
Growing apples near a body of water can give an advantage by slowing spring warm up, which retards flowering until frost is less likely. In some areas of the USA, such as the eastern shore of [[Lake Michigan]], the southern shore of [[Lake Ontario]], and around some smaller lakes, this cooling effect of water, combined with good, well-drained soils, has made apple growing concentrations possible. However, the cool, humid spring weather in such locations can also increase problems with fungal diseases, notably [[apple scab]]; many of the most important apple-growing regions (e.g. northern China, central Turkey, and eastern Washington in the USA) have climates more like the species' native region well away from the sea or any lakes, with cold winters leading to a short, but warm spring with low risk of frost.
Home growers may not have a body of water to help, but can utilise north slopes or other geographical features to retard spring flowering. Apples (or any fruit) planted on a south facing slope in the northern hemisphere (or north facing in the southern hemisphere), will flower early and be particularly vulnerable to spring f
rost.
===Pollination groups===
There are four to seven pollination groups in apples depending on climate :
* Group A – Early flowering, May 1 to 3 in England ([[Gravenstein]], [[Red Astrachan]])
* Group B – May 4 to 7 ([[Idared]], [[McIntosh]])
* Group C – Mid-season flowering, May 8 to 11 ([[Granny Smith]], [[Cox's Orange Pippin]])
* Group D – Mid/Late season flowering, May 12 to 15 ([[Golden Delicious]], [[Calville Blanc d'Hiver]]).
* Group E – Late flowering, May 16 to 18 ([[Braeburn]], [[Reinette d'Orléans]])
* Group F – May 19 to 23 ([[Suntan]])
* Group G – May 24 to 28 ([[Court Pendu Plat]])
One cultivar can be pollinized by a compatible cultivar from the same group or close (A with A or A with B but not A with C or D). Late groups are better to avoid frost in cold areas.
===Thinning===
Apples are prone to [[biennial bearing]]. If the fruit is not thinned when the tree carries a large crop, it may produce very little flower the following year. Good thinning helps even out the cycle, so that a reasonable crop can be grown every year.
Commercial orchardists practice chemical thinning, which is not practical for home fruit. Apples bear in groups of five (or more rarely six) blossoms. The first blossom to open is called the ''king bloom''. It will produce the best possible apple of the five. If it sets, it tends to suppress setting of the other blossoms, which, if they set anyway, should be removed. The next three blossoms tend to bloom and set simultaneously, therefore there is no dominance. All but one of these should be thinned for best quality. If the final blossom is the only one that sets, the crop will not be as good, but it will help reduce excessive woody growth (suckering) that usually happens when there is no crop.
===Maturation and harvest===
Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, will grow very large, which allows them to bear a great deal more fruit, but makes harvest very difficult. Mature trees typically bear 40-200 kg of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. Dwarf trees will bear about 10-80 kg of fruit per year.
===Pests and diseases===
{{Main|List of apple diseases}}
[[Image:Apple tree leaves with insect damage.jpg|thumb|right|Leaves with significant insect damage.]]
The trees are susceptible to a number of [[fungus|fungal]] and [[bacterium|bacteria]]l diseases and [[insect]] pests. Nearly all commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orchard management is the use of [[Integrated Pest Management]] (IPM), which reduces needless spraying when pests are not present, or more likely, are being controlled by natural [[predator]]s.
Spraying for insect pests must never be done during flowering because it kills pollinators. Nor should bee-attractive plants be allowed to establish in the orchard floor if insecticides are used. [[White clover]] is a component of many grass seed mixes, and many bees are poisoned by insecticides while visiting the flowers on the orchard floor.
Among the most serious disease problems are [[fireblight]], a bacterial disease; and ''[[Gymnosporangium]]'' rust, [[apple scab]], and [[Black Spot (disease)|black spot]], three fungal diseases.
The [[plum curculio]] is the most serious insect pest. Others include [[Apple maggot]] and [[codling moth]]. For other [[Lepidoptera]] [[larva]]e which feed on apple trees, see [[List of Lepidoptera which feed on Malus]].
Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft bark of the trees, especially in winter. Growers usually sheath juvenile trees with wire mesh to protect them.
Apples are difficult to grow organically, though a few orchards have done so with commercial success, using disease-resistant cultivars and the very best cultural controls. The latest tool in the organic repertoire is to spray a light coating of [[kaolin]] clay, which forms a physical barrier to some pests, and also helps prevent apple sun scald.
==Commerce and uses==
[[Image:Apples.jpg|thumb|right|A display of different apples]]
45 million tons of apples were grown worldwide in 2002, with a value of about 10 billion USD. [[China]] produced almost half of this total. [[Argentina]] is the second leading producer, with more than 15% of the world production. The [[United States]] is the third leading producer, accounting for 7.5% of world production. [[Turkey]] is also a leading producer. [[France]], [[Italy]], [[South Africa]] and [[Chile]] are among the leading apple exporters.
In the [[United States]], more than 60% of all the apples sold commercially are grown in [[Washington]] state. Imported apples from [[New Zealand]] and other more temperate areas are competing with US production and increasing each year.
Apples can be canned, juiced, and optionally fermented to produce [[apple juice]], [[cider]], [[vinegar]], and [[pectin]]. Distilled apple cider produces the [[alcoholic beverage|spirits]] [[applejack]] and [[Calvados (spirit)|Calvados]]. [[Apple wine]] can also be made. They make a popular lunchbox fruit as well.
Apples are an important ingredient in many winter [[dessert]]s, for example [[apple pie]], apple [[crumble]], [[apple crisp]] and [[apple cake]]. They are often eaten [[baked]] or [[stewed]], and they can also be dried and eaten or re-constituted (soaked in water, alcohol or some other liquid) for later use. Puréed apples are generally known as [[apple sauce]]. Apples are also made into [[apple butter]] and apple jelly. They are also used cooked in meat dishes.
*In the UK, a [[toffee apple]] is a traditional confection made by coating an apple in hot [[toffee]] and allowing it to cool. Similar treats in the US are [[candy apple]]s (coated in a hard shell of crystallised sugar syrup), and [[caramel apples]], coated with cooled [[caramel]].
*Apples are eaten with honey at the Jewish New Year of [[Rosh Hashanah]] to symbolise a sweet new year.
*Farms with apple orchards may open them to the public, so consumers may themselves pick the apples they will buy.
==Health benefits==
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Apples, with skin (edible parts) | kJ=218 | protein=0.26 g | fat=0.17 g | carbs=13.81 g | fiber=2.4 g | | sugars=10.39 g | iron_mg=0.12 | calcium_mg=6 | magnesium_mg=5 | phosphorus_mg=11 | potassium_mg=107 | zinc_mg=0.04 | vitC_mg=4.6 | pantothenic_mg=0.061 | vitB6_mg=0.041 | folate_ug=3 | thiamin_mg=0.017 | riboflavin_mg=0.026 | niacin_mg=0.091 | right=1 | source_usda=1 }}
{{Details|Nutritional information about the apple}}
An old [[proverb]] attests to the health benefits of the fruit: "''An apple a day keeps the doctor away.''" Research suggests that apples may reduce the risk of [[colon cancer]], [[prostate cancer]] and [[lung cancer]].<ref>[http://cancer.stanford.edu/information/nutritionAndCancer/reduceRisk/ Information about cancer], from Stanford comprehensive cancer center.</ref> Like many fruits, apples contain [[Vitamin C]] as well as a host of other [[antioxidant]] compounds, which may reduce the risk of cancer by preventing [[DNA]] damage. The fibre content, while less than in most other fruits, helps regulate bowel movements and may thus reduce the risk of colon cancer. They may also help with [[heart disease]], [[weight loss]] and controlling [[cholesterol]], as they do not have any cholesterol, have fibre (which reduces cholesterol by preventing reabsorption), and are bulky for their caloric content like most fruits and vegetables.
A group of chemicals in apples could protect the brain from the type of damage that triggers such [[neurodegenerative disease]]s as [[Alzheimer's]] and [[Parkinsonism]]. Chang Y. 'Cy' Lee of the [[Cornell University]] found that the apple [[phenolic]]s, which are naturally occurring [[antioxidants]] found in fresh apples, can protect [[nerve cell]]s from neurotoxicity induced by [[oxidative stress]]. The researchers used red delicious apples from New York State to provide the extracts to study the effects of [[phytochemicals]]. Lee said that all apples are high in the critical [[phytonutrient]]s and that the amount of phenolic compounds in the apple flesh and in the skin vary from year to year, season to season and from growing region to growing region (November/December 2004 issue of the Journal of Food Science). The predominant phenolic phytochemicals in apples are [[quercetin]], [[epicatechin]], and [[procyanidin]] B2 (PMID 14558772).
The [[seed]]s are mildly poisonous, containing a small amount of [[amygdalin]], a [[cyanide|cyanogenic]] [[glycoside]], but a large amount would need to be chewed to have any toxic effect.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rawveg.info/rawfoodtoxins.html | title=Raw Food Toxins | RawVeg.info | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref>
[[Pesticide]] contamination is linked to an increasing number of diseases, and they are mostly found on the outside of fruits and vegetables. Washing or peeling before eating may reduce pesticide intake<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/toddlers_exposed_to_daily_29072004.html | title=Friends of the Earth: Press Releases: Toddlers Exposed to Daily Pesticide Threat | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref> but peeling will also reduce the intake of the beneficial nutrients.
Apple consumption can help remove trapped food and clean between the teeth, but the [[malic acid]] contained within the fruit is also capable of eroding [[tooth enamel]] over time, and through excess consumption.
==Cultural aspects==
===Apples as symbols===
Apples appear in many [[World religions|religious traditions]], often as a mystical and [[forbidden fruit]]. Though the forbidden fruit in the book of ''[[Genesis]]'' is not identified, popular European [[Christianity|Christian]] tradition has held that it was an apple that [[Adam and Eve|Eve]] coaxed [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] to share with her. As a result, in the story of Adam and Eve the apple became a symbol for temptation, the fall of man into sin, and sin itself. In [[Latin]], the words for 'apple' and for '[[evil]]' are similar in the singular (''malus'' — apple, ''malum'' — evil) and identical in the plural (''mala''). This may be the reason that the apple was interpreted as the [[Bible|biblical]] 'forbidden fruit'. The [[larynx]] in the human throat has been called [[Adam's apple]] because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in the throat of Adam.
[[Image:Two Young Men, Crispin van den Broeck.jpg|thumb|right|240px|'''Two Young Men''' <br>In this painting modern interpreters have viewed the apple alternately as an ironic twist on Christian symbology intended by the painter as a sexual innuendo between two men [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Museum/Europe/deBroeck.htm], or as a ''[[memento mori]]'' [http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/pharos/collection_pages/northern_pages/PD_20_1961/TXT_SE-PD201961.html]. <br>[[Crispin van den Broeck]] (Dutch), ca. 1590; Oil on panel; Fitzwilliam Museum, [[Cambridge]].]]
This notion of the apple as a symbol of sin is reflected in artistic renderings of the fall from [[Eden]]. When held in Adam's hand, the apple symbolises sin. However, when [[Christ]] is portrayed holding an apple, he represents the Second Adam who brings life. This also reflects the evolution of the symbol in Christianity. In the [[Old Testament]] the apple was significant of the fall of man; in the [[New Testament]] it is an emblem of the redemption from that fall, and as such is also represented in pictures of [[the Madonna]] and [[Infant Jesus]].
There are several instances in the Old Testament where the apple is used in a more favourable light. The phrase 'the apple of your eye' comes from verses in Deuteronomy 32:10, Psalm 17:8 Proverbs 7:2, and Zechariah 2:8 implying an object or person greatly valued. In [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] 25:11, the verse states, "''a word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in settings of silver''". In the love songs of the [[Song of Solomon]], the apple is used in a sensual context. I
n these latter instances the apple is used as a symbol for beauty. The apple appears again in Joel 1:12 in a verse with a sense of profound loss when the apple tree withers.
At times artists would co-opt the apple, as well as other religious symbology, whether for ironic effect or as a stock element of symbolic vocabulary. Thus, secular art as well made use of the apple as symbol of love and sexuality. It is often an attribute associated with [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] who is shown holding it.
===Apples in mythology===
[[Image:Durer Adam and Eve.jpg|thumb|right|180px|'''Adam and Eve'''<br>A classic depiction of the biblical tale showcasing the apple as a symbol of sin.<br>[[Albrecht Dürer]], 1507; Oil on panel; 209 x 81 cm (per panel); Museo Nacional del Prado, [[Madrid]].[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/durer/].]]
The [[Greek hero]] [[Heracles]], as a part of his [[Heracles#The Twelve Labours|Twelve Labours]], was required to travel to the [[Hesperides#The Garden of the Hesperides|Garden of the Hesperides]] and pick the [[golden apple]]s off the [[Tree of Life]] growing at its center.
The Greek goddess of discord, [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]], became disgruntled after she was excluded from the wedding of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]]. In retaliation, she tossed a golden apple inscribed [[Kallisti]] ('For the most beautiful one'), into the wedding party. Three goddesses claimed the apple: [[Hera]], [[Athena]], and [[Aphrodite]]. [[Paris]] of [[Troy]] was appointed to select the recipient. After being bribed by both Hera and Athena, Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world, [[Helen]] of [[Sparta]]. He awarded the apple to Aphrodite, thus indirectly causing the [[Trojan War]].
[[Atalanta]], also of Greek mythology, raced all her suitors in an attempt to avoid marriage. She outran all but [[Hippomenes]], who defeated her by cunning, not speed. Hippomenes knew that he could not win in a fair race, so he used three golden apples to distract Atalanta. It took all three apples and all of his speed, but Hippomenes was finally successful, winning the race and Atalanta's hand.
In [[Norse mythology]], the goddess [[Iðunn]] was the appointed keeper of apples that kept the [[Æsir]] young forever. Iðunn was abducted by [[Þjazi]] the [[Jotun|giant]], who used [[Loki]] to lure Iðunn and her apples out of [[Asgard|Ásgarðr]]. The Æsir began to age without Iðunn's apples, so they coerced Loki into rescuing her. After borrowing [[Freya|Freyja's]] falcon skin, Loki liberated Iðunn from Þjazi by transforming her into a nut for the flight back. Þjazi gave chase in the form of an eagle, where upon reaching Ásgarðr he was set aflame by a bonfire lit by the Æsir. With the return of Iðunn's apples, the Æsir regained their lost youth.
[[Celtic mythology]] includes a story about [[Conle]] who receives an apple which feeds him for a year but also gives him an irresistible desire for [[Fairyland]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
===Legends, folklore, and traditions===
* Since [[1990]], [[Apple Day]] has been held across the UK and beyond, on [[October 21]]
*[[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[folklore]] holds that [[William Tell]] courageously shot an apple from his son's head with his crossbow, defying a tyrannical ruler and bringing freedom to his people.
*[[Ireland|Irish]] folklore claims that if an apple is peeled into one continuous ribbon and thrown behind a woman's shoulder, it will land in the shape of the future husband's initials.
*[[Denmark|Danish]] folklore says that apples wither around adulterers.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*Apples are said to increase a woman's chances of [[Fertilisation#Human fertilisation|conception]] as well as remove [[birthmarks]] when rubbed on the skin.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*According to a popular legend, [[Isaac Newton]], upon witnessing an apple fall from its tree, was inspired to conclude that a similar [[gravity|'universal gravitation']] attracted the moon toward the Earth as well (this legend is discussed in more detail in the article on Isaac Newton).
*In the European fairy tale ''[[Snow White]]'', the princess is killed, or sunk into a kind of coma with the appearance of death, by choking on a poisoned apple given to her by her stepmother. Later, the princess is jostled into coughing up the piece, miraculously returning her to life.
* In [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian legend]], the mythical isle of [[Avalon|Avalon's]] name is believed to mean 'isle of apples'.
*In some places, [[bobbing for apples]] is a traditional [[Halloween]] activity.<ref>[http://wilstar.com/holidays/hallown.htm History and customs of Halloween]</ref>
*In the [[United States]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]], an apple (polished) is a traditional gift for a teacher. This stemmed from the fact that teachers during the 16th to 18th centuries were poorly paid, so parents would compensate the teacher by providing food. As apples were a very common crop, teachers would often be given baskets of apples by students. As wages increased, the quantity of apples was toned down to a single fruit.
* The [[Apple Wassail]] is a traditional form of [[wassailing]] practiced in [[cider]] [[orchards]] of [[South West England]] during the winter. The ceremony is said to 'bless' the apple trees to produce a good crop in the forthcoming season.
* In [[Ancient Greece]], a man throwing an apple to a woman was a proposal of marriage. Catching it meant she accepted {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
===Apple facts===
[[Image:Apple-logo.png|thumb|right|100px|Apple, Inc. logo]]
*The ancient [[Kazakhstan|Kazakh]] city of [[Almaty]], 'Father of Apples' ([[Turkic language]] alma, apple, + ata, father), owes its name to the forests of wild apples (''Malus sieversii'') found naturally in the area.
*The apple blossom is the [[state flower]] of [[Arkansas]] and [[Michigan]].
*The Norwegian municipality of [[Leikanger]] has apples in its coat-of-arms.
*The name of the Russian party [[Yabloko]] means 'apple'. Its logo represents an apple in the [[constructivism (art)|constructivist]] style.
*[[Apple Corps]] (including [[Apple Records]]) and [[Apple Inc.]] have also adopted the apple as logos for their companies.
* The 'fruit-bearing tree' referred to by [[Tacitus]] in his description of Norse [[Runes#Magic and Divination|runic divination]] may have been the apple.
*[[Johnny Appleseed]] was an [[United States|American]] pioneer orchardist; he earned his name by planting apple trees across large swaths of [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], and [[Illinois]].
* One of the youngest apple varieties is Aurora Golden Gala (2003),<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.agr.gc.ca/cb/index_e.php?s1=n&s2=2003&page=n31002b | title=AAFC Online — Newsroom — News Releases | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref> a sweet yellow Canadian apple; while one of the oldest apples in the United States may be the Roxbury Russet (1640).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.beardsleyscidermill.com/apple.html | title=Beardsley's Cider Mill | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref>
*There is a small amount of cyanide in apple seeds
*[[Cary Fowler]], executive secretary of the [[Global Crop Diversity Trust]], said in a statement:
:"''At the end of the 1800s, 7,000 named apple varieties were grown in the United States. Now, 6,800 of those are as extinct as the dinosaurs.''"<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.spacewar.com/2006/060619095826.cl6whipe.html | title=Work on biodiversity 'doomsday vault' begins in the Arctic | accessdate=2006-09-16}}</ref>
==Apples as food==
Different cultivars of apples have a distinct different taste, and this can be separated into two separate factors of flavour and texture.
==See also==
* [[Apple picking]]
* [[wikt:apple seed|Apple seed]]
* [[Cooking apple]]
* [[Cider apple]]
* [[Fruit tree propagation]]
* [[Fruit tree pollination]]
* [[Fruit tree forms]]
* [[Herefordshire Pomona]]
* [[List of apple cultivars]]
* [[Nutritional information about the apple]]
* [[Pruning fruit trees]]
==References==
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</div>
==External links ==
{{Wiktionary}} {{Commons|Apple}} {{Cookbook|Apple}}
* [http://www.usapple.org/consumers/appleguide/guide.cfm#braeburnU.S Apple A
ssociation Guide] with some years and places of cultivar origins
* [http://www.ifr.bbsrc.ac.uk/public/FoodInfoSheets/applefacts.html Apple Facts] from the UK's [[Institute of Food Research]]
* [http://www.commonground.org.uk Common Ground (for Apple Day)]
{{Apples}}
[[Category:Apples| ]]
[[Category:Grocer's Encyclopedia]]
