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| | + | __NOTOC__{{Plantbox |
| | + | | name = ''Glycine max'' |
| | + | | common_names = Soybean |
| | + | | growth_habit = ? <!--- tree, shrub, herbaceous, vine, etc --> |
| | + | | high = ? <!--- 1m (3 ft) --> |
| | + | | wide = <!--- 65cm (25 inches) --> |
| | + | | origin = ? <!--- Mexico, S America, S Europe, garden, etc --> |
| | + | | poisonous = <!--- indicate parts of plants which are known/thought to be poisonous --> |
| | + | | lifespan = <!--- perennial, annual, etc --> |
| | + | | exposure = ? <!--- full sun, part-sun, semi-shade, shade, indoors, bright filtered (you may list more than 1) --> |
| | + | | water = ? <!--- frequent, regular, moderate, drought tolerant, let dry then soak --> |
| | + | | features = <!--- flowers, fragrance, fruit, naturalizes, invasive --> |
| | + | | hardiness = <!--- frost sensitive, hardy, 5°C (40°F), etc --> |
| | + | | bloom = <!--- seasons which the plant blooms, if it is grown for its flowers --> |
| | + | | usda_zones = ? <!--- eg. 8-11 --> |
| | + | | sunset_zones = <!--- eg. 8, 9, 12-24, not available --> |
| | + | | color = IndianRed |
| | + | | image = Soybean.USDA.jpg |
| | + | | image_width = 180px <!--- leave as 240px if horizontal orientation photo, or change to 180px if vertical --> |
| | + | | image_caption = <!--- eg. Cultivated freesias --> |
| | + | | regnum = Plantae |
| | + | | phylum = Magnoliophyta |
| | + | | classis = Magnoliopsida |
| | + | | ordo = Fabales |
| | + | | familia = Fabaceae |
| | + | | subfamilia = Faboideae |
| | + | | genus = Glycine |
| | + | | species = max |
| | + | }} |
| | {{Inc| | | {{Inc| |
| | Soybean (Glycine Soja, formerly called G. hispida) is a legume, long a staple crop in Japan, but somewhat recently cultivated more or less extensively in the United States. (Figs. 479, 483.) In its native country, Japan, the seed is an important human food product, but in the United States its principal use at present is as a forage plant for farm live-stock and as a soil-renovator. It is an upright leafy branching plant, growing 3 to 4 feet high. Two distinct plants have been called soybean: the smaller one (Phaseolus aureus) is grown principally in southern Asia; the larger species, the true soybean, is Glycine Soja. This latter species has become popular in some sections of the United States because of its power of resisting drought and for the further reason that it may supply a large amount of forage rich in protein. In the northern states it is probable that the soybean will be acclimated and that it will serve as an adjunct to the maize crop as a food for stock, although it is coarse in leaf and stalk. | | Soybean (Glycine Soja, formerly called G. hispida) is a legume, long a staple crop in Japan, but somewhat recently cultivated more or less extensively in the United States. (Figs. 479, 483.) In its native country, Japan, the seed is an important human food product, but in the United States its principal use at present is as a forage plant for farm live-stock and as a soil-renovator. It is an upright leafy branching plant, growing 3 to 4 feet high. Two distinct plants have been called soybean: the smaller one (Phaseolus aureus) is grown principally in southern Asia; the larger species, the true soybean, is Glycine Soja. This latter species has become popular in some sections of the United States because of its power of resisting drought and for the further reason that it may supply a large amount of forage rich in protein. In the northern states it is probable that the soybean will be acclimated and that it will serve as an adjunct to the maize crop as a food for stock, although it is coarse in leaf and stalk. |
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| − | It thrives best upon a warm well-drained loamy soil, and seed should not be planted until all danger from frost is over. The land should be prepared by plowing and harrowing in the early spring, and the harrow should be used two or three times before the seeds are planted. Best success is attained by planting in drills, rows to be from 2 1/2 to 3 feet apart and the hills in the row 18 to 20 inches apart. During the early periods of growth, cultivation should be frequent, preferably with a fine-toothed implement. After the plants have grown so that the ground is well shaded, the tillage may be discontinued. It is doubtful whether the curing of the plants for hay will ever come into general practice, but the crop may be largely grown for green soiling and for ensilage purposes. It may be cut into the silo with corn and serves to improve the quality of the food.
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| | To the horticulturist the soybean is valuable chiefly as a soil-renovator. The soil of the orchard can be given clean culture during the early summer and the soybeans may be sown broadcast about July 1 and harrowed in. One bushel of seed to the acre will be required. One bushel of rye to the acre should be sown at the same time, for when the beans are killed down by the frost in the fall the rye will then serve as a cover-crop for the winter. When the soil is so hard and forbidding that clover will not thrive, the soybean may be made to serve as a nitrogen-gatherer. See Glycine. | | To the horticulturist the soybean is valuable chiefly as a soil-renovator. The soil of the orchard can be given clean culture during the early summer and the soybeans may be sown broadcast about July 1 and harrowed in. One bushel of seed to the acre will be required. One bushel of rye to the acre should be sown at the same time, for when the beans are killed down by the frost in the fall the rye will then serve as a cover-crop for the winter. When the soil is so hard and forbidding that clover will not thrive, the soybean may be made to serve as a nitrogen-gatherer. See Glycine. |
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| − | {{Taxobox
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| − | | color = lightgreen
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| − | | name = Soybean
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| − | | image = Soybean.USDA.jpg
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| − | | image_width = 240px
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| − | | regnum = [[Plant]]ae
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| − | | phylum = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
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| − | | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
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| − | | ordo = [[Fabales]]
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| − | | familia = [[Fabaceae]]
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| − | | subfamilia = [[Faboideae]]
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| − | | genus = ''[[Glycine (plant)|Glycine]]''
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| − | | species = '''''G. max'''''
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| − | | binomial = ''Glycine max''
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| − | | binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Elmer Drew Merrill|Merr.]]
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| − | }}
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| − | {{nutritionalvalue | name=Soybean, green raw | kJ=125.52 | protein=3.04 g | fat=0.18 g | satfat=0.046 g | monofat = 0.022 g | polyfat = 0.058 g| carbs=5.94 g | calcium_mg=13 | copper_mg = 0.164 | iron_mg=0.91 | magnesium_mg=21 | phosphorus_mg=54 | potassium_mg=149 | sodium_mg=6 | zinc_mg=0.41 | vitA_ug=1 | vitB6_mg=0.088 | vitB12_ug=0 | vitC_mg=13.2 | vitK_ug=33| water=90.4 g | fiber=1.8 g | sugars=4.13 g | right=1 | source_usda=1}}
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| − | The '''soybean''' ([[American English|U.S.]]) or '''soya bean''' ([[British English|UK]]) (''Glycine max'') is a species of [[legume]] native to [[East Asia|Eastern Asia]]. It is an [[annual plant]] that may vary in growth, habit, and height. It may grow prostrate, not growing higher than 20 cm (7.8 inches), or even stiffly erect up to 2 meters (6.5 feet) in height. The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray pubescence. The [[leaf|leaves]] are trifoliate (sometimes with 5 leaflets), and the leaflets are 6–15 cm (2–6 inches) long and 2–7 cm (1–3 inches) broad. The leaves fall before the seeds are mature. The small, inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or purple. The [[fruit]] is a hairy [[legume|pod]] that grows in clusters of 3–5, with each pod 3–8 cm (1–3 inches) long and usually containing 2–4 (rarely more) [[seed]]s 5–11 mm in diameter.
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| − | Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural variety (a [[cultigen]]) with a very large number of [[cultivar]]s. However, it is known that the progenitor of the modern soybean was a vine-like plant that grew prone on the ground.
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| − | Beans are classed as [[pulses]] whereas soybeans are classed as [[oilseeds]]. The word "soy" is derived from the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] word 醬油 ([[soy sauce|soy sauce/soya sauce]]).
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| − | == Physical characteristics ==
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| − | Soybeans occur in various sizes, and in several [[husk|hull]] or seed coat colors, including black, brown, blue, yellow, and mottled. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water resistant, and protects the [[cotyledon]] and [[hypocotyl]] (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked the seed will not [[germinate]]. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water.
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| − | It is a remarkable fact that seeds such as soybeans, containing very high levels of [[soy protein]], can undergo [[desiccation]] yet survive and revive after water absorption. A. Carl Leopold, son of [[Aldo Leopold]], set out twenty years ago to study this capability at the [[Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research]] at [[Cornell University]]. Studying the survival of soybeans and corn he found each to have a range of soluble [[carbohydrate]]s protecting the seed's cell viability.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes = | last = Blackman | first = SA | authorlink = | coauthors = Obendorf RL, Leopold AC | date = | year = 1992 | month = Sept | title = Maturation Proteins and Sugars in Desiccation Tolerance of Developing Soybean Seeds | journal = Plant Physiol. | volume = 100 | issue = 1 | pages = 225–30 | doi = | id = {{PMC|1075542}} | url = http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1075542 | format = 1.2M PDF, or scanned pages | accessdate = 2006-10-21 }}</ref> Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting "biological membran
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| − | es" and proteins in the dry state.
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| − | What Leopold, who is retired, could not have foreseen is that his research on soybeans would lead to techniques that allowed [[insulin]] to be dried and later processed into an [[inhalable insulin]], named [[Exubera]] by [[Pfizer]].
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| − | ==Chemical composition of the seed==
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| − | The oil and protein content together account for about 60% of dry soybeans by weight; protein at 40% and oil at 20%. The remainder consists of 35% carbohydrate and about 5% ash. Soybean cultivars comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% [[cotyledons]] and 2% [[hypocotyl]] axis or germ.
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| − | The majority of [[soy protein]] is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. It is this heat-stability of the soy protein that enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as [[tofu]], soymilk and textured vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made.
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| − | The principal soluble [[carbohydrates]], saccharides, of mature soybeans are the disaccharide [[sucrose]] (range 2.5–8.2%), the trisaccharide [[raffinose]] (0.1–1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of [[galactose]], and the tetrasaccharide [[stachyose]] (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose. While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars and therefore contribute to [[flatulence]] and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, methane, etc.
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| − | Since [[soluble]] soy carbohydrates are found mainly in the [[whey]] and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, [[soy protein]] isolates, [[tofu]], soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous [[bifidobacteria]] in the colon against [[putrefactive]] bacteria.
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| − | The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides [[cellulose]], [[hemicellulose]], and [[pectin]]. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to [[dietary fiber]].
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| | ==Cultivation== | | ==Cultivation== |
| − | [[Image:Soybeanvarieties.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Varieties of soybeans are used for many purposes.]]
| + | {{Inc| |
| − | | + | It thrives best upon a warm well-drained loamy soil, and seed should not be planted until all danger from frost is over. The land should be prepared by plowing and harrowing in the early spring, and the harrow should be used two or three times before the seeds are planted. Best success is attained by planting in drills, rows to be from 2 1/2 to 3 feet apart and the hills in the row 18 to 20 inches apart. During the early periods of growth, cultivation should be frequent, preferably with a fine-toothed implement. After the plants have grown so that the ground is well shaded, the tillage may be discontinued. It is doubtful whether the curing of the plants for hay will ever come into general practice, but the crop may be largely grown for green soiling and for ensilage purposes. |
| − | Soybeans are an important global crop, grown for oil and protein. The bulk of the crop is solvent-extracted for vegetable oil and then defatted soy meal is used for animal feed. A very small proportion of the crop is consumed directly as food by humans. Soybean products, however, appear in a large variety of processed foods.
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| − | Soybeans have been a crucial crop in eastern [[Asia]] since long before written records, and they are still a major crop in [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]] today. Prior to fermented products such as [[soy sauce]], [[tempeh]], [[natto]], and [[miso]], soy was considered sacred for its use in crop rotation as a method of fixing nitrogen. The plants would be plowed under to clear the field for food crops.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} Soy was first introduced to [[Europe]] in the early 1700s and the [[United States]] in 1765, where it was first grown for hay. [[Benjamin Franklin]] wrote a letter in 1770 mentioning sending soybeans home from England. Soybeans did not become an important crop outside of Asia until about 1910. In America, soy was considered an industrial product only and not utilized as a food prior to the 1920s.
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| − | Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 °C to 30 °C (68°F to 86°F); temperatures of below 20 °C and over 40 °C (68 °F, 104 °F) retard growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes perform [[nitrogen fixation]] by establishing a [[symbiotic]] relationship with the
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| − | bacterium ''[[Rhizobia|Bradyrhizobium japonicum]]'' ([[synonymy|syn.]] ''Rhizobium japonicum''; Jordan 1982). However, for best results an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop [[cultivar]]s generally reach a height of around 1 m (3 ft), and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting.
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| − | {{Agricultural production box
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| − | |plant=Soybean
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| − | |year=2005
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| − | |country1={{USA}}
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| − | |amount1=83.9
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| − | |country2={{BRA}}
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| − | |amount2=52.7
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| − | |country3={{ARG}}
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| − | |amount3=38.3
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| − | |country4={{CHN}}
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| − | |amount4=17.4
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| − | |country5={{IND}}
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| − | |amount5=6.6
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| − | |country6={{PAR}}
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| − | |amount6=3.5
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| − | |country7={{CAN}}
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| − | |amount7=3.0
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| − | |country8={{BOL}}
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| − | |amount8=1.7
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| − | |country9={{ITA}}
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| − | |amount9=0.5
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| − | |world=214.3
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| − | Soybeans are native to southeast Asia, but 45 percent of the world's soybean area, and 55 percent of production, is in the United States. The U.S. produced 75 million metric tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. Other leading producers are [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], China, and [[India]].
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| − | Environmental groups, such as [[Greenpeace]] and the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], have reported that both soybean cultivation and the threat to increase soybean cultivation in Brazil is destroying huge areas of [[Amazon rainforest]] and encouraging [[deforestation]]. Besides destruction of the rainforest, it destroys unique [[biodiversity]] and causes a billion dollar's loss on [[technology]] from [[bionics]] revenue. American soil scientist, Dr. Andrew McClung, who first showed that the infertile [[Cerrado]] region of Brazil could grow soybeans, was awarded the 2006 [[World Food Prize]] on October 19, 2006.<ref>{{cite news |first = Susan|last = Lang|authorlink =|author = Lang, S|coauthors =|title = Cornell alumnus Andrew Colin McClung reaps 2006 World Food Prize|url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/June06/World.Food.prize.ssl.html|format = |work = |publisher = Cornell University|pages = |page = |date = 2006-06-21|accessdate = 2006-10-21 |language = }}</ref>
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| − | The first research on soybeans in the United States was conducted by [[George Washington Carver]] at [[Tuskegee, Alabama]], but he decided it was too exotic a crop for the poor black farmers of the South so he turned his attention to peanuts. [[Peanut]]s, soybeans, or other [[legume]] plants that would replenish the soil with [[nitrogen]] and [[mineral]]s were planted for two years and then [[cotton]] on the third year. A two-year rotation system alternating [[maize]] instead is also a possibility.
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| − | ==Production history==
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| − | [[Image:2005soyabean.PNG|thumb|left|Soyabean output in 2005]]
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| − | Soybean domestication occurred in Northeast Asia. Ancient historical documents from China state that soybean agriculture began during the [[Zhou Dynasty]] in 664 BC. and was introduced to the Zhou heartland from the northeast, perhaps the Manchurian Plain <ref>Ho, Ping-ti 1977. The Indigenous Origins of Chinese Agriculture. In ''The Origins of Agriculture'', edited by C.A. Reed, pp. 413-484. Mouton, Chicago.</ref>. Archaeologists recovered soybean from a site in [[Jilin]] Province and dated charcoal associated with the legume to cal. 900–520 BC.
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| − | However, the earliest known soybeans were unearthed from [[archaeological site]]s in [[Korea]] <ref>Crawford, Gary W. and Gyoung-Ah Lee 2003. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. ''Antiquity'' 77(295):87-95.</ref>. For example, AMS radiocarbon dating on soybean recovered through [[flotation]] during excavations at the Early [[Mumun]] Period Okbang site in Korea clearly indicates that soybean was cultivated as a food crop in cal. 1000–900 BC. <ref>Crawford and Lee 2003:90</ref>. Although the Korean peninsula is usually considered to be an area of secondary agricultural origins, similar research on [[Azuki]] bean indicates that Korea was an early centre of importance related to the domestication and early cultivation of legumes <ref>Crawford and Lee 2003</ref>. The best current evidence indicates that soybean cultivation occurred in the Early [[Yayoi Period]].
| + | ===Propagation=== |
| | + | {{edit-prop}}<!--- Type propagation info below this line, then delete this entire line --> |
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| − | ==Soybean diseases | + | ===Pests and diseases=== |
| − | == | + | {{edit-pests}}<!--- Type pest/disease info below this line, then delete this entire line --> |
| − | {{Main|List of soybean diseases}} | |
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| − | ==Genetic modification== | + | ==Species== |
| − | Soybeans are one of the "[[Biotechnology|biotech]] food" crops that are being [[Genetically modified food|genetically modified]], and GM soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. [[Monsanto]] is the world's leader in genetically modified soy for the commercial market. In 1995, Monsanto introduced "[[Roundup Ready]]" (RR) soybeans that have had a copy of a [[gene]] from the bacterium, ''Agrobacterium'' sp. strain CP4, inserted, by means of a [[gene gun]], into its genome that allows the [[transgenic]] plant to survive being sprayed by this non-selective herbicide, glyphosate. Glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup, kills conventional soybeans. The bacterial gene is EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-3-phosphate) synthase. Soybean also has a version of this gene, but the soybean version is sensitive to glyphosate, while the CP4 version is not.<ref>Padgette SR, Kolacz KH, Delannay X, Re DB, LaVallee BJ, Tinius CN, Rhodes WK, Otero YI, Barry GF, Eichholz DA, Peschke VM, Nida DL, Taylor NB, Kishore GM (1995) Development, identification, and characterization of a glyphosate-tolerant soybean line. Crop Sci 35:1451-1461</ref>
| + | <!-- This section should be renamed Cultivars if it appears on a page for a species (rather than genus), or perhaps Varieties if there is a mix of cultivars, species, hybrids, etc --> |
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| − | RR soybeans allow a farmer to spray widely the herbicide [[Roundup]] and so to reduce tillage or even to sow the seed directly into an unplowed field, known as 'no-till' or conservation tillage. No-till agriculture has many advantages, greatly reducing soil erosion and creating better wildlife habitat;<ref>Conservation Technology Information Center, http://www.conservationinformation.org/</ref> it also saves fossil fuels, and sequesters CO2, a greenhouse effect gas.<ref>Brookes G and Barfoot P (2005) GM crops: The global economic and environmental impact—the first nine years 1996–2004. AgBioForum 8:187-195</ref> It must be said, however, that the production and use of an artificial herbicide such as Roundup does consume significant quantities of fossil fuels and does not improve wildlife habitat since it is designed specifically to kill most plants.
| + | ==Gallery== |
| | + | {{photo-sources}}<!-- remove this line if there are already 3 or more photos in the gallery --> |
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| − | In ''1997'', about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2006, the figure was 89%. As with other "Roundup Ready" crops, concern is expressed over damage to [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Liu |first= KeShun |title= Soybeans : Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization |url= |format= Hardcover |accessdate= |edition= |date=1997-05-01 |publisher= Springer |location= |language= |id= ISBN 0-8342-1299-4 |doi = |pages= 532 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote = }}</ref> However, the RR gene has been bred into so many different soybean cultivars that the genetic modification itself has not resulted in any decline of genetic diversity.<ref>Sneller CH (2003) Impact of transgenic genotypes and subdivision on diversity within elite North American soybean germplasm. Crop Sci 43:409-414.</ref>
| + | <gallery> |
| − | | + | Image:Soybeanvarieties.jpg|Varieties of soybeans are used for many purposes. |
| − | ==Uses==
| + | Image:Soybeans.jpg|Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South America. |
| − | Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. [[Tofu]] and [[soymilk]] producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because they have a tendency for the pods to shatter on reaching maturity.
| + | Image:Trader joes edamame.jpg|Toasted soybeans |
| − | | + | </gallery> |
| − | Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is pre-eminent for its high (38–45%) [[protein]] content as well as its high (20%) oil content. Soybeans are the leading agricultural export in the United States. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.
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| − | Soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pod and served with [[edible salt|salt]], under the Japanese name ''edamame'' (枝豆 [[IPA chart
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| − | for English|IPA pronunciation]]: {{IPA|[edamame]}}). Soybeans prepared this way are a popular local snack in [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]], and are becoming increasingly popular in the continental [[United States]]. Because of the health benefits of soy, [[edamame]] has been featured as an ideal snack alternative in fitness and healthy living magazines such as [[Real Simple]]. Edamame is sold in the frozen vegetable section at some larger grocery stores.
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| − | In [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]] the bean and products made from the bean are a popular part of the diet.<br />
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| − | Japanese foods made from soya include: [[miso]] (味噌), [[natto]] (納豆), [[tofu]] (豆腐) and [[edamame]] (枝豆)<br />
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| − | In [[Korean cuisine]], soybean sprouts, called ''kongnamul'' (hangul:콩나물) are also used in a variety of dishes such as [[doenjang]], [[cheonggukjang]] and [[Soy sauce|ganjang]], .
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| − | The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or ''soya'') include soy meal, soy [[flour]], "[[soy milk]]", [[tofu]], [[textured vegetable protein]] (TVP, which is made into a wide variety of [[vegetarian food]]s, some of them intended to imitate [[meat]]), [[tempeh]], soy [[lecithin]] and [[soybean oil]]. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the production of [[soy sauce]] (or ''shoyu'').
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| − | [[Image:Soybeans.jpg|thumb|right|Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South America.]]
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| − | [[Archer Daniels Midland]] (ADM) is among the largest processors of soybeans and soy products. ADM along with [[DOW]], [[DuPont]] and [[Monsanto]] support the industry trade associations [[United Soybean Board]] (USB) and [[Soyfoods Association of North America]] (SANA). These trade associations have increased the consumption of soy products dramatically in recent years.
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| − | ===Oil===<!-- This section is linked from [[Alpha-linolenic acid]] -->
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| − | In processing soybeans for [[oil]] extraction and subsequent soy flour production, selection of high quality, sound, clean, dehulled yellow soybeans is very important. Soybeans having a dark colored seed coat, or even beans with a dark hilum will inadvertently leave dark specks in the flour, an undesirable factor when used in food products. All commercial soybeans in the United States are yellow or yellow brown.
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| − | To produce soybean oil, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial [[hexane]]. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes [[Hydrogenation|hydrogenated]]. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil," or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. The remaining soybean husks are used mainly as animal feed.
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| − | The major [[unsaturated]] fatty acids in soybean oil [[triglycerides]] are 7% [[Alpha-linolenic acid|linolenic acid]] (C18:3); 51% [[linoleic acid]] (C-18:2); and 23% [[oleic acid]](C-18:1). It also contains the saturated fatty acids 4%[[stearic acid]] and 10% [[palmitic acid]].
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| − | Soybean oil has a relatively high proportion, 7–10%, of oxidation prone linolenic acid, which is an undesirable property for continuous service, such as in a restaurant. In the early nineties, Iowa State University developed soybean oil with 1% linolenic acid in the oil. Three companies, [[Monsanto]], [[DuPont]]/[[Bunge Limited|Bunge]], and [[Asoyia]] in 2004 introduced low linolenic, (C18:3; cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 octadecatrienoic acid) [[Roundup Ready]] soybeans: the former introduced a new soybean seed variety called "Vistive" and the latter Pioneer seed variety 93M20. Dupont/Bunge is marketing its low linolenic soybean oil under the brand name [[Nutrium]]. The idea is that reducing or eliminating the triple unsaturated fatty acid, linolenic, also eliminates the tendency to be a paint-like [[drying oil]] producing noticeable rancidity. In the past [[hydrogenation]] reduced the unsaturation in linolenic acid but produced the unnatural [[trans]] fatty acid [[trans fat]] configuration whereas in nature the configuration is [[cis]].
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| − | One unintended consequence of moving away f
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| − | rom partially hydrogenated soybean oil (containing trans fatty acids) is the switch to partially saturated [[palm oil]] for frying, especially in China. This fact is resulting in a severe threat of deforestation to pristine forests in Indonesia followed by the planting of [[oil palm]] plantations.<ref>
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| − | Forests in Southeast Asia Fall to Prosperity's Ax will grow vast plantations for palm oil, an ... would develop in Indonesia as part of a $ ... '' From Indonesia to Malaysia to Myanmar, ...April 29, 2006 - By JANE PERLEZ; Muktita Suhartono contributed reporting for this article. (NYT)-New York Times - World - News - 1431 words. [http://www.cspinet.org/palmoilreport/index.html Center for Science in the Public Interest]</ref>
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| − | In the 2002–2003 growing season, 30.6 million [[metric ton]]s of soybean oil were produced worldwide, constituting about half of worldwide edible vegetable oil production, and thirty percent of all fats and oils produced, including animal fats and oils derived from tropical plants.<ref>[[United States Department of Agriculture]], Agricultural Statistics 2004. Table 3-51.</ref>
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| − | Soybean oil has also been found effective as an insect repellent in some studies<ref>Barnard, D.R. and R. Xue. 2004. Laboratory evaluation of mosquito repellents against Aedes albopictus, Culex nigripalpus, and Ochlerotatus triseriatus (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 41(4):726-730.</ref>
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| − | <ref>Fradin, M.S. and J.F. Day. 2002. Comparative efficacy of insect repellents against mosquito bites. N. Engl. J. Med. 347:13-18.</ref>. The commercial product Bite Blocker contains soybean oil as one active ingredient.
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| − | === Meal ===
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| − | Soybean meal, the material remaining after solvent extraction of soybean flakes, with a 50% [[soy protein]] content, toasted (a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam), and ground, in a [[hammer mill]], provided the energy for the American revolution, beginning in the 1930s, of growing farm animals such as [[poultry]] and [[domestic pig|swine]] on an industrial scale; and more recently the [[aquaculture]] of [[catfish]].
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| − | ===Flour===
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| − | Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) in order to minimize [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] of the protein to retain a high Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI), for uses such as extruder texturizing (TVP). It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.
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| − | * Defatted soy flour, is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less than 1% oil.
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| − | * Full-fat soy flour, is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about 18% to 20% oil. Due to its high oil content a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill must be used for grinding rather than the more common hammermill.
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| − | * Low fat soy flour, is made by adding back some oil to defatted soy flour. The lipid content varies according to specifications, usually between 4.5% and 9%.
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| − | * High fat soy flour, is produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour, at the level of 15%.
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| − | * Lecithinated soy flour, is made by adding soybean [[lecithin]] to defatted, low fat or high fat soy flours to increase their dispersibility and impart emulsifying properties. The lecithin content varies up to 15%.
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| − | ===Infant formula===
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| − | [[Infant formula]]s based on soy are used by lactose-intolerant babies; and for babies that are allergic to human milk proteins and cow milk proteins. The formulas are sold in powdered, ready to feed, or concentrated liquid forms.
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| − | It has been recommended internationally by pediatric associations that soy formulas not be used as the primary or sole source of nutrition for infants due to the high risk of several deficiencies including calcium and zinc. Some studies have also indicated that soy may act similarly to the hormone estrogen in developing infants. This has caused some concern that soy formula may cause undesirable side effects, such as reproductive problems. However, no studies to date have shown any negative effects on infants resulting from the estrogen-like compounds in soy
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| − | formula. The Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction, part of the US Department of Health and Human Services, has recommended further research into this area.
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| − | ===Substitute for existing products===
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| − | Many traditional [[dairy product]]s have been imitated using processed soybeans, and imitation products such as "[[soy milk]]," "soy [[yogurt]]" and "soy [[cream cheese]]" are readily available in most [[supermarket]]s. These imitation products are derived from extensive processing to produce a texture and appearance similar to the real dairy-based ones. Soy milk does not contain significant amounts of [[calcium]], since the high calcium content of soybeans is bound to the insoluble constituents and remains in the [[soy pulp|pulp]]. Many manufacturers of soy milk now sell calcium-enriched products as well. In Australia, Sweet William Chocolates have developed a soy based chocolate which they market as "dairy free" chocolate and chocolate spread.
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| − | ===Other products ===
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| − | Soybeans are also used in industrial products including oils, [[soap]], [[cosmetics]], [[resin]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[ink]]s, [[crayon]]s, [[solvent]]s, [[clothing]], and [[biodiesel]]. Soybeans are also used as fermenting stock to make a brand of [[vodka]].
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| − | [[Henry Ford]] promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics. Ford's interest led to two bushels of soybeans being used in each Ford car as well as products like the first commercial [[soy milk]], ice cream and all-vegetable non-dairy whipped topping.
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| − | The Ford development of so called soy-based plastics was based on the addition of soybean flour and wood flour to [[phenolformaldehyde plastics]].
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| − | In 1931, Ford hired the chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert in a quest for artificial silk. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a [[formaldehyde]] bath which was given the name [[Azlon]] by the Federal Trade Commission. Pilot plant production of Azlon reached 5000 pounds per day in 1940, but never reached the commercial market. However, Henry Ford did have the now famous suit made for him of Azlon which he wore on special occasions.
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| − | The winning textile fiber in the search for artificial silk was, of course, [[Nylon]]: a synthetic [[polyamide]] or artificial protein discovered in 1935 by Wallace H. Carothers at [[DuPont]].
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| − | [Soybeans and Soybean Products, Vol.II, edited by K. H. Markley, 1951]
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| − | Today, very high quality textile fibers are made commercially from "okara" ([[soy pulp]]), a by-product of [[tofu]] production.
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| − | ==Nutrition==
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| − | ===Protein===
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| − | {{main|soy protein}}
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| − | Soybeans are generally considered to be a source of [[complete protein]],<ref>http://www.truestarhealth.com/members/cm_archives12ML3P1A8.html The Scoop on Protein Powders By Sofia Segounis, Nutritionist</ref> although this is contested by some sources.<ref>[http://www.nutrition4health.org/NOHAnews/NNF01SoyBeatrice.htm THE DOWNSIDE OF SOYBEAN CONSUMPTION]</ref><ref>[http://life.familyeducation.com/nutrition-and-diet/weight/46761.html Protein Means Power and a Whole Lot More]</ref> A complete protein is one that contains significant amounts of all the [[essential amino acid]]s that must be provided to the [[human body]] because of the body's inability to [[Synthesis|synthesize]] them. For this reason, soy is important to many [[Vegetarianism|vegetarians]] and [[Veganism|vegans]]. However, the phrase complete protein can be a bit misleading since proteins vary in their protein values. Whey protein has a [[Biological Value|BV]] of 100, egg white protein is 83, and soybean protein isolate is 74.<ref name="BVScale">Max Muscle Sports & Fitness: [http://www.maxmuscle.com/index.cfm?fa=article&doc_id=397&subcat=sports_nutrition Whey Protein with Dorian Yates By Dorian Yates: Table System]</ref><ref name="1991Report">Protein Quality-Report of Joint FAO’/WHO Expert Consultation, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 51, 1991.</ref> [[Soy protein]] is
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| − | similar to that of other legume seeds, but has the highest yield per square meter of growing area, and is the least expensive source of dietary protein.
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| − | | |
| − | The original Protein Efficiency Ratio [[PER]] method of measuring soy protein quality was found to be flawed for humans because the young rats used in the study have higher relative requirements for sulfur-containing amino acids. As such the analytical method that is universally recognized by the FAO/WHO (1990) as well as the [[FDA]], [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]], [[United Nations University]] (UNU) and the [[National Academy of Sciences]] when judging the quality of protein is [[PDCAAS|Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score]], as it is viewed as accurately measuring the correct relative nutritional value of animal and vegetable sources of protein in the diet.<ref>FAO/WHO (1991) Protein Quality Evaluation Report of Joint FAO/WHO Expert
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| − | Consultation, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Food
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| − | and Nutrition Paper No. 51, Rome.</ref><ref>Schaafsma, G. (2000) 'The protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score. ''Journal of Nutrition'' 130, 1865S-1867S</ref>
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| − | Based on this method, soy protein is considered to have a similar equivalent in protein quality to animal proteins. Egg white has a score of 1.00, beef 0.92, isolated soy protein 0.92, and soy concentrate 0.99. The digestibility of some soyfoods is as follows: steamed soybeans 65.3%, tofu 92.7%, soy "milk" 92.6%, soy protein isolate 93 – 97%.<ref>{{cite book |last= Liu |first= KeShun |title= Soybeans : Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization |url= |format= Hardcover |accessdate= |edition= |date=1997-05-01 |publisher= Springer |location= |language= |id= ISBN 0-8342-1299-4 |doi = |pages= 532 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote = Citation on p.391 from Watanabe, et al., 1971 (in Japanese) }}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | Another measure of a protein's use in nutrition is the [[Biological Value|Biological Value (BV)]] scale. The Biological Value method, which dates back to 1911 relies on nitrogen retention as an indicator of protein quality.<ref name="BillMisner">The Great Animal Versus Vegetable Protein Debate What Is The Best Protein For Muscle Growth? By Dr. Bill Misner, Ph.D. [http://www.afpafitness.com/articles/AnimalvsVegetable.htm Article]</ref>
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| − | ===Vitamins and minerals===
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| − | [[Image:Trader joes edamame.jpg|thumb|right|Toasted soybeans]]
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| − | Of any studied legume, whole soybeans have the highest levels of [[phytic acid]], an [[organic acid]] and mineral [[chelation|chelator]] present in many plant tissues, especially [[bran]] and [[seed]]s, which binds to certain ingested minerals: calcium, magnesium, iron, and especially zinc — in the intestinal tract, and reduces the amount the body assimilates. For people with a particularly low intake of essential minerals, especially young children and those in [[developing countries]], this effect can be undesirable. However, dietary mineral chelators help prevent over-mineralization of joints, blood vessels, and other parts of the body, which is most common in older persons.
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| − | Consumption of soy may also reduce the risk of [[colon cancer]], possibly due to the presence of [[sphingolipid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Symolon H, Schmelz E, Dillehay D, Merrill A | title = Dietary soy sphingolipids suppress tumorigenesis and gene expression in 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-treated CF1 mice and ApcMin/+ mice. | journal = J Nutr | volume = 134 | issue = 5 | pages = 1157-61 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15113963 | url = http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/134/5/1157 }}</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | ==The role of soyfoods in disease prevention==
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| − | ===Omega-3 fatty acids===
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| − | [[Omega-3 fatty acids]], for example, [[Alpha-linolenic acid|linolenic acid]] C18-3, all cis, 9,12,15 octadecatrienoic acid (where the omega-3 refers to carbon number 3 counting from the hydrocarbon tail whereas C-15 refers to carbon number 15 counting from the carboxyl acid head) are special fat components that benefit many body functions. However, the effects which are beneficial to health are associated mainly with t
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| − | he longer-chain, more unsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic (20:5n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA) found in fish oil and oily fish. For instance, EPA and DHA, inhibit blood clotting, while there is no evidence that alpha-linolenic acid (aLNA) can do this. Soybean oil is one of the few common vegetable oils that contains a significant amount of aLNA; others include [[canola]], walnut, and [[flax]]. However, soybean oil does not contain EPA or DHA. Soybean oil does contain significantly greater amount of [[omega-6]] fatty acids in the oil: 100g of soybean oil contains 7g of omega-3 fatty acids to 51g of omega-6: a ratio of 1:7. Flaxseed, in comparison, has an omega-3:omega-6 ratio of 3:1 which may inhbit conversion of aLNA to the biologically active forms EPA and DHA, which is at best limited in humans anyway.
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| − | | |
| − | ===Isoflavones===
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| − | {{main|Isoflavone}}
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| − | Soybeans also contain [[isoflavone]]s, a type of [[phytoestrogen]], that are considered by some nutritionists and physicians to be useful in the prevention of cancer and by others to be carcinogenic and endocrine disruptive. Soy's high levels of isoflavone phytoestrogens, being up to 3mg/g dry weight, are the subject of heated debate and controversy. They are also blamed for some [[thyroid]] and reproductive health problems.
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| − | | |
| − | Isoflavones are [[polyphenol]] compounds, produced primarily by beans and other legumes, including [[peanut]]s and [[chickpea]]s. Although isoflavones are closely related to the antioxidant [[flavonoids]] found in plants, vegetables and flowers, isoflavones such as genistein and daidzein are found in very few plant families. This is because of the restricted distribution of the enzyme, chalcone isomerase which converts a flavone precursor into an isoflavone, to tropical legumes.
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| − | Isolated phytoestrogen-like isoflavones are an active research area. A paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences studied the effect of the isolated soy isoflavones genistein and daidzein (commonly found in dietary supplements and infant formulas) on adult mice with their ovaries removed. The study found the mice had thymic and immune system abnormalities and reduction in immune system activity. The article suggests further research into human phytoestrogen response is warranted.<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/11/7616 "The phytoestrogen genistein induces thymic and immune changes: A human health concern?"] Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences May 28, 2002</ref>
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| − | "Researchers Daniel Doerge and Daniel Sheehan, two of the FDA's experts on soy, signed a letter of protest, which points to studies that show a link between soy and health problems in certain animals. The two say they tried in vain to stop the FDA approval of soy because it could be misinterpreted as a broader general endorsement beyond benefits for the heart."<ref>[http://www.alkalizeforhealth.net/Lsoy2.htm FDA Scientists Against Soy]. The anti-soy website "Soy Online Service" has the original letter in [[Portable Document Format|PDF]]. [http://www.soyonlineservice.co.nz/downloads/nctrpti.pdf]</ref>
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| − | The FDA has since publicly rejected these claims due to lack of evidence and cite numerous studies that uphold the health benefits of soy foods.<ref>[http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2000/300_soy.html Soy: Health Claims for Soy Protein, Questions About Other Components]</ref>
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| − | ===Claims of cholesterol reduction===
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| − | The dramatic increase is largely credited to the [[Food and Drug Administration]]'s (FDA) approval of health claims for soy in which studies are conflicting to their cholesterol lowering ability.<ref name="CU">Cornell University Food and Brand Lab [http://www.foodpsychology.cornell.edu/research/soy/index.htm Article]</ref>
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| − | | |
| − | From 1992 to 2003, soyfoods sales have experienced a 15% [[compound annual growth rate]], increasing from $300 million to $3.9 billion over 11 years, as new soyfood categories have been introduced, soyfoods have been repositioned in the market place, thanks to a better emphasis on marketing nutrition. New customers have selected soy for health and philosophical reasons. Dramatic growth followed the FDA approval of a health claim linking soy with heart disease reduction.
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| − | In 1995, the New England Journal of Medicine (Vol. 333, No. 5) published a report from the [[University of Kentucky]] entitled, "Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Soy Protein Intake on Serum Lipids." It was financed by the PTI division of DuPont,"The Solae Co."<ref>[http://www.solae.com/ The Solae Company]</ref> [[St. Louis, Missouri]], a soy producer and marketer. This meta-analysis concluded that soy protein is correlated with significant decreases in serum cholesterol, Low Density Lipoprotein [[LDL]] (bad cholesterol) and triglyceride concentrations. However, High Density Lipoprotein [[High density lipoprotein|HDL]](good cholesterol) did not increase by a significant amount. Soy [[phytoestrogens]] ([[isoflavones]]: genistein and daidzein) [[adsorbed]] onto the soy protein were suggested as the agent reducing serum cholesterol levels. On the basis of this research PTI, in 1998, filed a petition with FDA for a health claim that soy protein may reduce cholesterol and the risk of heart disease. It should be noted that only subjects with serum cholesterol of 250mg/dl and higher showed any improvement in the study.
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| − | The FDA granted this health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease." One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein. Solae resubmitted their original petition, asking for a more vague health claim, after their original was challenged and highly criticized. Solae also submitted a petition for a health claim that soy can help prevent cancer. They quickly withdrew the petition for lack of evidence and after more than 1000 letters of protest were received.
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| − | In January, 2006 an [[American Heart Association]] review (in the journal Circulation) of a decade long study of soy protein benefits casts doubt on the FDA allowed "Heart Healthy" claim for soy protein. This review of the literature compared soy protein and its component isoflavones with casein (isolated milk protein), wheat protein, and mixed animal proteins.<ref>[http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/113/7/1034#SEC2Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee -- Sacks et al. 113 (7): 1034 -- Circulation]</ref> The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post menopause "hot flashes" in women and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. Thus, soy isoflavone supplements in food or pills is not recommended. Among the conclusions the authors state, "In contrast, soy products such as tofu, soy butter, soy nuts, or some soy burgers should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat. Using these and other soy foods to replace foods high in animal protein that contain saturated fat and cholesterol may confer benefits to cardiovascular health."<ref>[http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/113/7/1034#SEC5 Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee -- Sacks et al. 113 (7): 1034 -- Circulation]</ref>
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| − | The original paper is in the journal Circulation: January 17, 2006.<ref>[http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=soybeans%2Cfda&searchid=1138541151493_2869&FIRSTINDEX=0&search_url=http%3A%2F%2Fcirc.ahajournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fsearch&journalcode=circulationaha Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health. An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee -- Sacks et al., 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052 -- Circulati
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| − | on]</ref>
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| − | A meta-analysis of 17 studies by Laurence Howes from the Griffith University School of Medicine in in January 2007 challenged the claim about hot flashes. He found that isoflavones decreased hot flashes frequency in a dose-dependent fashion.<ref name="StephanDaniels">Meta-analysis supports isoflavones for hot flushes. By Stephen Daniells. 15/01/2007. [http://www.nutraingredients.com/news/ng.asp?id=73353-soy-isoflavones-menopause Article]</ref>
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| − | ==Soy controversy==
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| − | ===Phytoestrogen===
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| − | {{main|Phytoestrogens}}
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| − | Soybeans contain [[isoflavones]] called [[genistein]] and [[daidzein]]. Soybeans are a common source of these phenolic compounds: genistein and daidzein. Soybean isoflavonoids are one of a number of primary sources of phytoestrogens in the human diet that mimic estrogen. Since most naturally occurring estrogenic substances show only weak activity , it is doubtful that normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens would provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans. Genistein is only 10 raised to the -5 (1/100,000)as active as the synthetic estrogen, diethylstilbestrol; and daidzein, the other isoflavone in soybeans, is only 1/4 as active as genistein. <ref> Wong,E.,and Flux,D.S. 1962. J. Endocrinology, 24, 341-348. </ref>
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| − | Plant [[lignans]] associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. The best source of lignans is flax seed. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor [[secoisolariciresinol]] containing 13–273 µg/100 g dry weight.<ref>[http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/130/3/658S Phytoestrogens and Prostate Disease -- Adlercreutz et al. 130 (3): 658 -- Journal of Nutrition]</ref> Another phytoestrogen, in the human diet, with estrogen activity is [[coumestans]] but much less well studied which are found in beans, split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. [[Coumestrol]], an isoflavone [[coumarin]] derivative is the only coumestan in foods.<ref>de Kleijn MJ, van der Schouw YT, Wilson PW, Grobbee DE, Jacques PF. Dietary intake of phytoestrogens is associated with a favorable metabolic cardiovascular risk profile in postmenopausal U.S. women: the Framingham study. J Nutr. 2002;132(2):276-282. (PubMed)</ref><ref>Valsta LM, Kilkkinen A, Mazur W, et al. Phyto-oestrogen database of foods and average intake in Finland. Br J Nutr. 2003;89 Suppl 1:S31-38. (PubMed)</ref>
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| − |
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| − | "Data were presented on an as is (wet) basis per 100 g and per serving. Food groups with decreasing levels of total phytoestrogens per 100 g are nuts and oilseeds, soy products, cereals and breads, legumes, meat products, and other processed foods that may contain soy, vegetables, fruits, alcoholic, and nonalcoholic beverages. Soy products contain the highest amounts of isoflavone, followed by legumes, meat products and other processed foods, cereals and breads, nuts and oilseeds, vegetables, alcoholic beverages, fruits, and nonalcoholic beverages. Decreasing amounts of lignans are found in nuts and oilseeds, cereals and breads, legumes, fruits, vegetables, soy products, processed foods, alcoholic, and nonalcoholic beverages. The richest sources of specific phytoestrogens, including coumestrol, were identified. The database will improve phytoestrogen intake estimation in future epidemiological and clinical studies particularly in Western populations."
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| − | <ref>http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327914nc5402_5 - </ref>
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| − | ====Phytoestrogen in men====
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| − | Because of the phytoestrogen content, some studies indicate that there is a correlation between a soybean-rich diet and a decrease in the level of [[testosterone]] in men, although these findings are controversial.<ref>[http://www.menshealth.com/cda/article.do?site=MensHealth&channel=health&category=other.diseases.ailments&conitem=43f999edbbbd201099edbbbd2010cfe793cd____ Soy? Sorry... Tofu burgers are healthier than beef, and 8 other common health "facts" that are fa
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| − | lse Illustrations by: Nana Rausch, By: Shannon Davis]</ref><ref>PMID 15735098</ref><ref>[http://www.westonaprice.org/soy/phytoestrogens.html The Effects of Antenatal Exposure to Phytoestrogens on Human Male Reproductive and Urogenital Development by Bernard Poggi]</ref>
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| − | A study carried out at the [[Royal Victoria Hospital]] in [[Belfast]] linked soy to male infertility, including damage of reproductive capability already caused during childhood.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/3513607.stm Soya 'link' to male infertility. The humble soya bean may play a role in the problem of male infertility, a team of researchers in Belfast has found.]</ref> The study also points out that "soy is not just consumed by vegetarians, it is contained in a lot of everyday processed foods."
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| − | ====Phytoestrogen in women====
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| − | A 2001 study determined that women with current or past breast cancer should be aware of the risks of potential tumor growth when taking soy products.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=11573864 Ann Pharmacother. 2001 Sep;35(9):1118-21.Effects of soy phytoestrogens genistein and daidzein on breast cancer growth. de Lemos ML. Provincial Systemic Therapy Program, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, Canada.]</ref>
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| − | A 2006 study concluded that not enough information is available; the impact of isoflavones on breast tissue needs to be evaluated at the cellular level in women at high risk for breast cancer.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16985246&query_hl=7&itool=pubmed_docsum J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006 Sep 20;98(18):1275-84.Addressing the soy and breast cancer relationship: review, commentary, and workshop proceedings. Messina M, McCaskill-Stevens W, Lampe JW. Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA]</ref>
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| − | ====Phytoestrogen in infant formula====
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| − | There are some studies that state that a phytoestrogen in soy can lead to alterations in the proliferation and migration of intestinal cells. The effects of these alterations are unknown.<ref>[http://www.ehponline.org/realfiles/docs/2005/113-5/forum.html ''Read Heading Under:'' '''Sour News for Soy Formula?''']</ref><ref>[http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/134/6/1303 Genistein at a Concentration Present in Soy Infant Formula Inhibits Caco-2BBe Cell Proliferation by Causing G2/M Cell Cycle Arrest -- Chen and Donovan 134 (6): 1303 -- Journal of Nutrition]</ref> However, some studies conclude there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula.<ref>[http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/134/5/1220S Safety of Soy-Based Infant Formulas Containing Isoflavones: The Clinical Evidence -- Merritt and Jenks 134 (5): 1220S -- Journal of Nutrition]</ref> Other studies conclude that more research is needed to answer the question of what effect phytoestrogens have on infants.<ref>PMID 14599051</ref><ref>PMID 15189112</ref>
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| − | ===Allergens===
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| − | {{see|Soy allergy}}
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| − | With the increased use of soybean in western diet comes also a danger of food allergies. Up to 8% of children in the USA are allergic to soybean proteins. The major soy allergen has been identified by scientists at [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]]. Both [[transgenic]] and conventional soybean varieties without the allergenic protein have been prepared, and hopefully will soon reach the market. This will be particularly important for preparation of baby formulas, since dual allergy to both milk and soy proteins is not unheard of. Soya allergy, typically, will manifest itself approximately a day after consumption of the beans. Common symptoms are [[urticaria]], rash, itching, and redness of the skin.<ref>[http://www.nexusmagazine.com/articles/Soy%20Allergens.html ''Nexus Magazine''] August-September, 2004; The Hidden Dangers of Soy Allergens by Kaayla T. Daniel, PhD, CCN, retrieved September 7, 2006</ref><ref
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| − | >[http://www.mcdonalds.com/app_controller.nutrition.categories.ingredients.index.html "McDonald's Nutrition Information and Ingredients"], August 26, 2006, retrieved September 7, 2006</ref><ref>[http://www.bk.com/Nutrition/PDFs/ingredients.pdf ''McDonald's USA''] (11 page PDF file) "Burger King Nutrition and Ingredients" ''Burger King Brands Inc. USA'', August, 2006, retrieved September 7, 2006</ref><ref>[http://wendys.com/food/pdf/us/nutrition.pdf ''Wendy's USA''] (6 page PDF file) "Wendy's Nutrition Facts", July 1, 2006, retrieved September 7, 2006</ref><ref>[http://allergies.about.com/cs/soy/a/aa061499.htm ''about.com''] "Soy Allergy" August 13, 2006, retrieved September 7, 2006</ref><ref>[http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=20&cont=522 Soy Allergy] information page. [[Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America]]</ref><ref>[http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/allerg/allergen_soy-soja_e.html Soy - One of the nine most common food allergens] Health Canada: One Of The Nine Most Common Food Allergens</ref>
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| − | ===Soy and the brain===
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| − | There is considerable evidence that estrogen aids in protecting the brain and helping it recover after injury.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/11/011120054652.htm "Science Daily: Estrogen Protects Brain Cells And Reduces Risk Of Developing Alzheimer's Disease"] November 26, 2001, retrieved February 26, 2007]</ref><ref>[http://158.93.191.59/news/mcgtomorrow/n3.htm "Saving Cells"] December 8, 2006, retrieved February 26, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=brainBriefings_estrogensInfluenceOnTheBrain "Estrogen's Influence On The Brain"] Society for Neuroscience. Retrieved February 26, 2007</ref> This mimicry of estrogen by phytoestrogens introduces a controversy over whether such a replacement is harmful or helpful to the brain. The study most often cited indicating that soy might be harmful was a study that followed over 3000 Japanese men between 1965 and 1999, and that showed a positive correlation between brain atrophy and consumption of tofu.<ref> White LM, Petrovich H, Ross GW, et al. Brain aging and midlife tofu consumption. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000 Apr;19(2):242-55 (PubMed)</ref> Nevertheless, this is a single study and by itself, does not show conclusively that soy causes brain atrophy. Furthermore, this study was rejected as not credible by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] when it issued its health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease."[http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2000/300_soy.html]
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| − | There are articles that imply that soy benefits the brain and reduces the possibility of Alzheimer's Disease.<ref>[http://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=news_101506b "How Diet Affects the Aging Brain"] Society for Neuroscience. October 15, 2006, retrieved February 26, 2007</ref> One three-year animal study found that the phytoestrogens of soy reduced protein alterations in the brain that are indicative of Alzheimer's.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1257583.stm "Soy 'cuts Alzheimer's risk'"] April 3, 2001, retrieved February 26, 2007</ref> Further studies must be done to determine the positive and/or negative effects of soy on the brain.
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| − | ===Health food stores and soy===
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| − | Soy consumption has been popularized by natural food companies and the soy industry's aggressive marketing campaign in various magazines, television ads and in health food markets. Research has been conducted examining the validity of the beneficial health claims with regard to the increase in consumption of soybeans which mimic hormonal activity. A practice guideline published in the journal ''Circulation'' questions the efficacy and safety of soy isoflavones for preventing or treating cancer of the breast, endometrium, and prostate (although the same study also concludes that soy in some foods should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health) and does not recommend usage of isoflavone supplements in food or pills.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes = | last = Sacks | first = FM | authorlin
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| − | k = | coauthors = Lichtenstein A, Van Horn L, et. al | date = | year = 2006 | month = Feb | title = Soy protein, isoflavones, and cardiovascular health: an American Heart Association Science Advisory for professionals from the Nutrition Committee. | journal = Circulation | volume = 113 | issue = 7 | pages = 1034-44 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052 | id = PMID 16418439 | url = http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/short/113/7/1034 | format = | accessdate = 2006-10-21}}</ref>
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| | ==References== | | ==References== |
| − | <div class="references-small"><references/></div> | + | *[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963 |
| | + | <!--- xxxxx *Flora: The Gardener's Bible, by Sean Hogan. Global Book Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0881925381 --> |
| | + | <!--- xxxxx *American Horticultural Society: A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants, by Christopher Brickell, Judith D. Zuk. 1996. ISBN 0789419432 --> |
| | + | <!--- xxxxx *Sunset National Garden Book. Sunset Books, Inc., 1997. ISBN 0376038608 --> |
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| | ==External links== | | ==External links== |
| − | {{commons|Glycine max|Soybean}} | + | *{{wplink}} |
| − | ;Advocacy and general information
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1839434,00.html Guardian - There's no risk to humans from soya]
| + | {{stub}} |
| − | * [http://www.foodrevolution.org/what_about_soy.htm Evaluation of Anti-Soy Data and Anti-Soy Advocates]
| + | [[Category:Categorize]] |
| − | * [http://www.tahoonline.info Soya recipe Popular filipino food]
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| − | * [http://www.foodpsychology.cornell.edu/research/soy/index.htm Cornell University Food and Brand Lab]
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| − | * [http://www.soya.be Soya information]
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| − | * [http://www.swicofil.com/soybeanproteinfiberproperties.html Soy Clothing: Properties of Soybean Protein Fibers and Yarn]
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| − | ;Critical
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| − | * [http://www.dldewey.com/columns/soyupdf.htm "Newest Research on Why You Should Avoid Soy"] by Sally Fallon and Mary Enig
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| − | * [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=42&ItemID=10628 Argentina Soya-fication Brings serious environmental, social and economic problems]
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| − | * [http://www.rheumatic.org/soy.htm Concerns Regarding Soybeans]
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| − | * [http://www.mercola.com/article/soy/index.htm Why Soy Can Damage Your Health]
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| − | * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/food/Story/0,,1828158,00.html Guardian - Should we worry about soya in our food?]
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| − | * [http://thyroid.about.com/cs/soyinfo/a/soy_3.htm Soy's Thyroid Dangers]
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| − | * [http://www.nexusmagazine.com/articles/Soy%20Allergens.html Soy Allergens]
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| − | * [http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=20&cont=522 Soy Allergy Information Page] [[Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America]]
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| − | * [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/allerg/allergen_soy-soja_e.html Health Canada: Soy - One of the nine most common food allergens]
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| − | * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/3513607.stm Soya 'Link' To Male Infertility]
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| − | * [http://www.soyonlineservice.co.nz/ Soy Online Service]
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| − | * [http://www.westonaprice.org/soy/index.html Soy Alert!]
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| − | *{{cite web |url=http://www.alternet.org/healthwellness/56087/ |title=AlterNet: Health & Wellness: The Dark Side of Soy |accessdate=2007-07-09 |format= |work=}}
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| − | [[Category:Biofuels]]
| + | <!-- in order to add all the proper categories, go to http://www.plants.am/wiki/Plant_Categories and copy/paste the contents of the page here, and then follow the easy instructions! --> |
| − | [[Category:Faboideae]]
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| − | [[Category:Soy products| ]]
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| − | [[Category:Genetically modified organisms]]
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| − | [[Category:Edible legumes]]
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| − | [[Category:Fiber plants]]
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