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| growth_habit = ? <!--- tree, shrub, herbaceous, vine, etc -->
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| bloom = <!--- seasons which the plant blooms, if it is grown for its flowers -->
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| color = IndianRed
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Color in flowers. The range of simple color among flowers is not very extensive. There are singular and almost unaccountable intervals in that range where color is conspicuously absent in every genus. Indeed, there is no such thing as a pure green flower, nor a pure blue one. neither is there any flower to match the remarkable blue-green or green-blue so familiar in the plumage of certain birds; this has no existence at all in the vegetable world. The range of color, therefore, among flowers is strictly circumscribed. A simple color is a hue not complicated with any other tint or shade or hue. Roughly described, the hues comprise: yellow, gold-yellow, orange, scarlet, red, crimson, magenta, purple, violet, and ultramarine; these together with blue, peacock-blue, green, and yellow- green (hues which do not appear in the floral world) compose a circle of color from which all tints and shades are derived. Fig. 1035. In other words, the admixture of white with a hue produces a tint, and the admixture of black, a shade. Fig. 1036. A reduction of the range of hues given above to its simplest terms would comprise only yellow, orange, red, purple, blue, and green, six primary colors. Fig. 1037. Although pioneer investigators of the nature of color resolved these six hues into three—yellow, red, and blue,—the restriction was made at the cost of absolute purity in the other three hues which they chose to name secondary colors. There is no possible way of producing absolutely pure orange, violet, or green, by a combination of pigments.
The generic character of flower-colors is comprehended in the hues just named, although such names ore of little consequence so long as identification is without question. Unfortunately scientists and artists have not yet established a standard nomenclature of color, and as a consequence the name of a particular hue is largely determined by a consensus of public opinion, which, very naturally, is not always correct.
Classification of colors.
It is essential, therefore, to accept both popular and scientific estimates of color if the subject is to be considered in its relation to flowers. The scientific determination of simple colors is expressed by certain arbitrary numbered lines in the spectrum. Thus, yellow is at line 580, gold- yellow at 605, orange at 630, scarlet at 655, red at 680, green at 530, peacock-blue at 505, violet at 430, ultramarine at 455, and blue at 480. These numbers indicate the wave-lengths of the respective hues, with the micron (one-millionth part of an inch) as the unit. This identification of color, however satisfactory from a scientific point of view, is both intangible and impracticable in every other respect. The flower-petal or the artist's pigment matched with the spectrum is the only proper medium through which to convey an adequate knowledge of a given hue to the layman, and it must be remembered that everyone is hypothetically the layman who is not directly associated with the particular science or art under consideration. The colors of certain flower- petals as matched with the spectrum Lines are as follows:
Yellow (580).—(Enothera biennis, Brassica nigra, Ranunculus acris, Helianthus decapetalus, a single dandelion ray.
Gold-yellow (590).—Rudbeckia hirta, golden calendula.
Gold-yellow (585).—Kerria japonica.
Gold-orange (600).—Golden eschscholtzia.
Gold-orange (615).—Crocus susianus.
Orange (635).—Tropaeolum majalis (deepest orange hue), the common type.
Scarlet (645).—Mme. Crozy canna, scarlet geranium and tropaeolum, berry of Cornus canadensis.
Red (680).—Red azalea, red carnation, tube of Rhododendron nudiflorum.
Red (690).—Red gladiolus.
Crimson.—Crimson peony, American Beauty rose (dilute).
Magenta.—Magenta cineraria, Polygala sanguinea.
Purple.—Purple cineraria, Mimulus ringens.
Violet (425).—Viola cuculala and Campanula rotundifolia (light).
Violet (430).—Verbena erinoides.
Ultramarine violet (440).—Centaurea Cyanus, the bluest phase (light).
Ultramarine blue (455).—Scilla sibirica (light).
Ultramarine blue (435).—Gentiana Andrewsii, (bluest tip of petal).
Blue (475).—Myosotis palustria, bluest phase (pale).
Such a list is manifestly imperfect; to state the case accurately, few flowers are "on the line;" three of the colors have no numbered lines, and many of the plant species or varieties are not and can not be explicitly cited. For example, the red carnation must be a red and not a scarlet-red variety, and its coloring should match that of the Rhododendron nudiflorum tube; the same rule applies to the red gladiolus. It is equally the case that many flowers show only a modification or a dilution of the hue they are chosen to represent; the blue of the forget-me-not at best is extremely dilute.
A list of artists' pigments is more to the point. It has the great advantage of nomenclatorial fixity and it does not include hues subject to change. The representative colors are:
Lemon, zinc, ultramarine, pale cadmium, and light malori yellows
Medium cadmium and malori gold-yellows.
Cadmium orange and deep malori orange-yellow.
Orange mineral.
Scarlet-vermilion.
Carmine or alizarin lake (no single pigment is exactly normal red), these incline to scarlet.
Crimson lake.
Magenta: a mixture of crimson and mauve lakes in nearly equal parts.
Mauve lake: a true purple.
Violet ultramarine.
Guimet's French ultramarine.
Cobalt blue.
Emerald-green.
The color harmonies.
If the simple colors, yellow, orange, red, purple, blue, and green, are arranged in a circle (Fig. 1037), those lying opposite each other harmonize by reason of absolute contrast. Blue and orange, for example, are complementary colors and theoretically they balance each other. It by no means follows, however, that a mass of orange nasturtiums and blue forget-me-nots must therefore look well together; the very massing of such hues would make that impossible in spite of the fact that the misty grayish character of a clump of blue forget-me-nots is the reverse of aggressive. But the orange of the nasturtium is obtrusive to the last degree, and its environment should be as colorless as possible—even to the point of dull gray or white.
If these six simple colors in the circle are again separated by intermediate hues (Fig. 1035), so about three of the latter lie between the six original colors, the result will be a circle of twenty-four divisions, having the effect of a rainbow. This will perfectly illustrate the principle of color harmony and color discord. Besides the opposing colors which harmonize by contrast, there are neighboring colors which harmonize by analogy.
For example, any four or five colors lying side by side in the circle are bound together harmoniously by reason of their near relationship. Therefore, all these four or five colors may be combined—and nature does combine them—with esthetic results. But skip over four of the colors and attempt a combination of the first and sixth, and the result will prove to be a discord, the bond of relationship is broken, and the eye is disturbed by the aggressiveness of two colors between which there is evidently no bond of sympathy. It would be safe to say, therefore, that the circle demonstrates the fact that its colors situated at right angles with each other are discordant, and those lying nearly parallel with each other are harmonious.
This is the theoretical side of color harmony. The practical side is scarcely different; it simply modifies the theory. Brilliant blue and orange, which are theoretically harmonious, are scarcely as agreeable in each other's company as the rule would imply. The trouble, however, lies with the brilliancy. The golden calendula and the deep purple aster in association are violent and aggressive. Remove the one and the other and substitute pale-tinted flowers of these hues and the result will be harmonious.
Flower families are very likely to sustain harmonies of analogy. Hyacinths, sweet peas, and nasturtiums represent groups with very nearly related hues or tints. There is a predominating influence of crimson-pink among sweet peas, of lilac among hyacinths, and of orange among nasturtiums, yet the influence at times (in a particular variety) is wholly wanting and is replaced by an analogous tint or hue. It would be a rather nice bit of color adjustment which would result in a harmony superior to that of a careless grouping together of flowers gathered at random from any one of these three genera.
But the theory that analogous colors harmonize is correct only when not carried to excess. Attempts to force deep-hued flowers into harmony often lead to contrary results. A range of color from crimson to ultramarine depends for its harmony upon the careful grading of intermediate hues. Such colors, in full force, might do violence to each other. It is tempting the hardness of a diamond to pound it with a hammer. It is taxing crimson too heavily to expect it to show its beauty in the presence of strong violet! The effort should rather be to merge the individualities of the crimson and the purple flowers into a group and effect a play of color between the two.
The theory that colors at right angles on the wheel are discordant is also subject to some modification. Relatively the right-angled colors must be crude and strong to affect the eye objectionably. Yellow and red in the rose is an agreeable color-combination. Yellow and red dahlias crowded together are certainly harsh and unneighborly.
A country bouquet of asters, marigolds, fuchsias and dahlias is bad, because the country garden is not a part of it. Atmosphere, space, and a stretch of green foliage make a world of difference.
It is wisest to try the effect of one color upon another before allowing two or three strong hues to wage war with each other. It will be found quickly that white is a peacemaker, and green is an invaluable mediator. With these colors at command, the chances of discord are reduced to a minimum. Everything also depends upon simplicity in color-combinations. It is questionable whether a combination of more than two colors can be ever esthetically a success. The adjustment of many colors needs the hand of an expert.
The restriction of color in flowers.
The very strict limitation of range in flower-colors demands careful study if it would be thoroughly understood. Augustin Pyramus de Candolle divided flower- colors into two classes, which he named xanthic (red, scarlet, orange, gold-orange, yellow, and green-yellow), and cyanic (green-blue, blue, ultramarine-violet, violet, purple, and red). Further, he explained, flowers of the yellow (xanthic) series could pass into red or white but never into blue, and those of the blue (cyanic) series could pass into red or white but never into yellow. The theory is correct but it requires both modification and revision. Gold-orange must evidently displace yellow, and ultramarine-violet displace blue as series names; furthermore, the passage into red should not exceed scarlet-red in the xanthic series, or crimson-red in the cyanic series. Pure red logically should be the zero point between the two divisions, and not be included in either unless connected by analogous hues.
Gold-orange and ultramarine-violet are respectively the type-colors of the two series because each occupies a median position with equal influence on either hand. Red, occupying the median position between the two series, should and does exercise an equal influence on both; a casual glance at the chromatic scale demonstrates the fact. Neither the xanthic nor the cyanic series can exclusively claim the respective yellow and blue in absolute purity, for the cogent reason that among flowers yellow is associated with both these divisions, and a true blue scarcely appears at all. Further, if pure red is the zero point between the two series, then the consistent red of the xanthic order is scarlet-red, and that of the cyanic order is crimson- red; a pure red or pure yellow flower, therefore, consistently belongs to either order according to its xanthic or cyanic congeners.
The best proofs of the above statements are to be found among the flowers themselves. Asters belong to the cyanic group, but there is no blue aster. Tropaeolums belong to the xanthic group, but there is no pure yellow nasturtium; there are, however, ultramarine- violet asters and gold-yellow nasturtiums. There is a pure yellow, a golden orange, but no white marigold (Tagetes); the species is xanthic. The family Cruciferae is cyanic; it includes pure yellow, deeper yellow, and magenta flowers. The genus Hyacinthus is cyanic; it includes no blue flower, but many which are purple, violet, cyanic red, and modified yellow. Viola tricolor is cyanic; it includes a strong yellow along with intense purple and violet-ultramarine flowers. The genus Zinnia is xanthic, it includes no true yellow flower but many which range through all reds into cyanic crimson. The genus Rosa is cyanic; its flowers range from pure red to magenta-crimson, develop a strong, modified yellow, fuse yellow with crimson, but never approach the xanthic gold-orange. The genus Chrysanthemum is xanthic; its flowers include all yellows, skip pure orange and scarlet, and range from scarlet-red to cyanic red- crimson.
Species belonging to the cyanic group invariably produce white flowers which have an albino origin, species of the xanthic order produce white flowers which are not albinos but which invariably displace flowers of some strong, pure xanthic hue. For example, geraniums are white, red, scarlet, and pink, but never gold-orange or golden yellow. Carnations are white, red, and cardinal-red, but never scarlet, or orange. Chrysanthemums are yellow, white, and pink, but never orange or scarlet. Dahlias are scarlet, red, crimson-red, and even pure yellow, but never pure gold-orange, or orange.
It is perfectly evident from the foregoing examples that the range in a given genus, or species, is limited to what may be termed the swing of a pendulum upon the chromatic scale (Fig. 1038). The swing may extend over a quarter of the dial, rarely it does more. If it happens that two colors are developed, like violet and yellow, it will still be found that there is but one pendulum-swing and not two. Violet will be associated with contiguous hues, but yellow will be developed quite alone.
This, it is reasonable to believe, is direct evidence of a dual or treble origin of color in a flower group. Yellow cannot be evolved from violet, or vice versa. Necessarily, if white appears in a xanthic group, it must have evolved alone and independent of any color- range in that group. Undoubtedly the range of contiguous colors itself has evolved from a median hue which has spread out, fanlike, in graded variations within strict limits. Naturally, such statements conflict with the old theory that all flowers were originally yellow, but they are not inimical to the idea that the earlier ones might have been yellow, and later ones magenta, violent ultramarine, scarlet, and gold-orange. It is important to keep in mind the fact that a steamboat is not evolved from a locomotive.
It is further evident that yellow belongs quite as little to the xanthic as it does to the cyanic series, or, to put it more strongly, it belongs to neither. Its origin, independent of any "range, was undoubtedly the elimination of blue from chlorophyll. Hence, it is not surprising to find it in some modified form associated with both series, and in the cyanic series isolated. The flora of the northeastern United States is essentially cyanic. Twenty-one per cent is yellow, 21 per cent magenta and 22 per cent white; the remainder is 8 per cent xanthic and 28 per cent cyanic—the last mostly pink and light violet. The record is significant and points directly either to an arrested color development, or to a depauperate color condition in an inclement region; the former seems the more likely. An aggregation of cyanic-flowered plants are found in the north temperate zone, and of xanthic-flowered plants in the torrid zone.
Color activity.
Color results from a play of light upon a surface which rejects or absorbs certain rays. It is a significant fact that the red end of the spectrum comprehends those hues which are produced by the caloric rays of the sun, and the violet end those hues which are produced by the actinic rays. It is not surprising therefore that the coloring of vegetation is intense, and that xanthic flowers predominate under the equator. A separation of cyanic and xanthic flowers follows almost identically the thermal lines which band the great continents of the northern hemisphere, cyanic color prevailing north, and xanthic color south of the line marking 80° F. In a word, xanthic flowers belong to a very warm, and cyanic flowers to a temperate or cold climate. That they should become mixed in a narrow zone between the extremes is only natural; the rule, therefore, is in no way compromised thereby. That yellow, too, should appear in both cyanic and xanthic groups is not at all surprising. In the spectrum it holds a median position between the red and the violet ends; it is neither a hot nor a cold color, and has consequently evolved from its primitive condition as a constituent of the green in chlorophyll under any and all temperatures. That is the only way to account for its isolation when connected with cyanic groups.
It would appear, then, that magenta, violet, and ultramarines, together with gold-orange, orange, and red, are primitive colors quite as well as yellow and white. In what order they appeared upon the earth in the petals of flowers, it would be difficult to determine, but it is reasonable to think they appeared as original colors, in weak, perhaps, but absolute purity. Otherwise, the remarkable limitation of color-range must be accounted for by a less logical theory. Upset this limitation, and attempts to produce a blue rose, yellow aster, white nasturtium, or green carnation, should prove successful. Recognize the limitation, and the futility of such attempts becomes at once apparent, and the possibility of improving existing "strains" of color is illimitable. At some time or other in the distant past the law of limitations fixed the range of flower-colors; no new law of elasticity has since developed to remove the boundaries and thus aid the floriculturist in his ambition to produce what would prove to be a mere novelty. F. Schuyler Mathews.
{{SCH}}
}}
==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}<!--- Type cultivation info below this line, then delete this entire line -->
===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}<!--- Type propagation info below this line, then delete this entire line -->
===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}<!--- Type pest/disease info below this line, then delete this entire line -->
==Species==
<!-- This section should be renamed Cultivars if it appears on a page for a species (rather than genus), or perhaps Varieties if there is a mix of cultivars, species, hybrids, etc -->
==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}<!-- remove this line if there are already 3 or more photos in the gallery -->
<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>
==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963
<!--- xxxxx *Flora: The Gardener's Bible, by Sean Hogan. Global Book Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0881925381 -->
<!--- xxxxx *American Horticultural Society: A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants, by Christopher Brickell, Judith D. Zuk. 1996. ISBN 0789419432 -->
<!--- xxxxx *Sunset National Garden Book. Sunset Books, Inc., 1997. ISBN 0376038608 -->
==External links==
*{{wplink}}
{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]
<!-- in order to add all the proper categories, go to http://www.plants.am/wiki/Plant_Categories and copy/paste the contents of the page here, and then follow the easy instructions! -->
| name = ''LATINNAME'' <!--- replace LATINNAME with the actual latin name -->
| common_names = <!--- if multiple, list all, if none, leave blank -->
| growth_habit = ? <!--- tree, shrub, herbaceous, vine, etc -->
| high = ? <!--- 1m (3 ft) -->
| wide = <!--- 65cm (25 inches) -->
| origin = ? <!--- Mexico, S America, S Europe, garden, etc -->
| poisonous = <!--- indicate parts of plants which are known/thought to be poisonous -->
| lifespan = <!--- perennial, annual, etc -->
| exposure = ? <!--- full sun, part-sun, semi-shade, shade, indoors, bright filtered (you may list more than 1) -->
| water = ? <!--- frequent, regular, moderate, drought tolerant, let dry then soak -->
| features = <!--- flowers, fragrance, fruit, naturalizes, invasive -->
| hardiness = <!--- frost sensitive, hardy, 5°C (40°F), etc -->
| bloom = <!--- seasons which the plant blooms, if it is grown for its flowers -->
| usda_zones = ? <!--- eg. 8-11 -->
| sunset_zones = <!--- eg. 8, 9, 12-24, not available -->
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png <!--- Freesia.jpg -->
| image_width = 240px <!--- leave as 240px if horizontal orientation photo, or change to 180px if vertical -->
| image_caption = <!--- eg. Cultivated freesias -->
| regnum = Plantae <!--- Kingdom -->
| divisio = <!--- Phylum -->
| classis = <!--- Class -->
| ordo = <!--- Order -->
| familia = <!--- Family -->
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|
<!--- ******************************************************* -->
Color in flowers. The range of simple color among flowers is not very extensive. There are singular and almost unaccountable intervals in that range where color is conspicuously absent in every genus. Indeed, there is no such thing as a pure green flower, nor a pure blue one. neither is there any flower to match the remarkable blue-green or green-blue so familiar in the plumage of certain birds; this has no existence at all in the vegetable world. The range of color, therefore, among flowers is strictly circumscribed. A simple color is a hue not complicated with any other tint or shade or hue. Roughly described, the hues comprise: yellow, gold-yellow, orange, scarlet, red, crimson, magenta, purple, violet, and ultramarine; these together with blue, peacock-blue, green, and yellow- green (hues which do not appear in the floral world) compose a circle of color from which all tints and shades are derived. Fig. 1035. In other words, the admixture of white with a hue produces a tint, and the admixture of black, a shade. Fig. 1036. A reduction of the range of hues given above to its simplest terms would comprise only yellow, orange, red, purple, blue, and green, six primary colors. Fig. 1037. Although pioneer investigators of the nature of color resolved these six hues into three—yellow, red, and blue,—the restriction was made at the cost of absolute purity in the other three hues which they chose to name secondary colors. There is no possible way of producing absolutely pure orange, violet, or green, by a combination of pigments.
The generic character of flower-colors is comprehended in the hues just named, although such names ore of little consequence so long as identification is without question. Unfortunately scientists and artists have not yet established a standard nomenclature of color, and as a consequence the name of a particular hue is largely determined by a consensus of public opinion, which, very naturally, is not always correct.
Classification of colors.
It is essential, therefore, to accept both popular and scientific estimates of color if the subject is to be considered in its relation to flowers. The scientific determination of simple colors is expressed by certain arbitrary numbered lines in the spectrum. Thus, yellow is at line 580, gold- yellow at 605, orange at 630, scarlet at 655, red at 680, green at 530, peacock-blue at 505, violet at 430, ultramarine at 455, and blue at 480. These numbers indicate the wave-lengths of the respective hues, with the micron (one-millionth part of an inch) as the unit. This identification of color, however satisfactory from a scientific point of view, is both intangible and impracticable in every other respect. The flower-petal or the artist's pigment matched with the spectrum is the only proper medium through which to convey an adequate knowledge of a given hue to the layman, and it must be remembered that everyone is hypothetically the layman who is not directly associated with the particular science or art under consideration. The colors of certain flower- petals as matched with the spectrum Lines are as follows:
Yellow (580).—(Enothera biennis, Brassica nigra, Ranunculus acris, Helianthus decapetalus, a single dandelion ray.
Gold-yellow (590).—Rudbeckia hirta, golden calendula.
Gold-yellow (585).—Kerria japonica.
Gold-orange (600).—Golden eschscholtzia.
Gold-orange (615).—Crocus susianus.
Orange (635).—Tropaeolum majalis (deepest orange hue), the common type.
Scarlet (645).—Mme. Crozy canna, scarlet geranium and tropaeolum, berry of Cornus canadensis.
Red (680).—Red azalea, red carnation, tube of Rhododendron nudiflorum.
Red (690).—Red gladiolus.
Crimson.—Crimson peony, American Beauty rose (dilute).
Magenta.—Magenta cineraria, Polygala sanguinea.
Purple.—Purple cineraria, Mimulus ringens.
Violet (425).—Viola cuculala and Campanula rotundifolia (light).
Violet (430).—Verbena erinoides.
Ultramarine violet (440).—Centaurea Cyanus, the bluest phase (light).
Ultramarine blue (455).—Scilla sibirica (light).
Ultramarine blue (435).—Gentiana Andrewsii, (bluest tip of petal).
Blue (475).—Myosotis palustria, bluest phase (pale).
Such a list is manifestly imperfect; to state the case accurately, few flowers are "on the line;" three of the colors have no numbered lines, and many of the plant species or varieties are not and can not be explicitly cited. For example, the red carnation must be a red and not a scarlet-red variety, and its coloring should match that of the Rhododendron nudiflorum tube; the same rule applies to the red gladiolus. It is equally the case that many flowers show only a modification or a dilution of the hue they are chosen to represent; the blue of the forget-me-not at best is extremely dilute.
A list of artists' pigments is more to the point. It has the great advantage of nomenclatorial fixity and it does not include hues subject to change. The representative colors are:
Lemon, zinc, ultramarine, pale cadmium, and light malori yellows
Medium cadmium and malori gold-yellows.
Cadmium orange and deep malori orange-yellow.
Orange mineral.
Scarlet-vermilion.
Carmine or alizarin lake (no single pigment is exactly normal red), these incline to scarlet.
Crimson lake.
Magenta: a mixture of crimson and mauve lakes in nearly equal parts.
Mauve lake: a true purple.
Violet ultramarine.
Guimet's French ultramarine.
Cobalt blue.
Emerald-green.
The color harmonies.
If the simple colors, yellow, orange, red, purple, blue, and green, are arranged in a circle (Fig. 1037), those lying opposite each other harmonize by reason of absolute contrast. Blue and orange, for example, are complementary colors and theoretically they balance each other. It by no means follows, however, that a mass of orange nasturtiums and blue forget-me-nots must therefore look well together; the very massing of such hues would make that impossible in spite of the fact that the misty grayish character of a clump of blue forget-me-nots is the reverse of aggressive. But the orange of the nasturtium is obtrusive to the last degree, and its environment should be as colorless as possible—even to the point of dull gray or white.
If these six simple colors in the circle are again separated by intermediate hues (Fig. 1035), so about three of the latter lie between the six original colors, the result will be a circle of twenty-four divisions, having the effect of a rainbow. This will perfectly illustrate the principle of color harmony and color discord. Besides the opposing colors which harmonize by contrast, there are neighboring colors which harmonize by analogy.
For example, any four or five colors lying side by side in the circle are bound together harmoniously by reason of their near relationship. Therefore, all these four or five colors may be combined—and nature does combine them—with esthetic results. But skip over four of the colors and attempt a combination of the first and sixth, and the result will prove to be a discord, the bond of relationship is broken, and the eye is disturbed by the aggressiveness of two colors between which there is evidently no bond of sympathy. It would be safe to say, therefore, that the circle demonstrates the fact that its colors situated at right angles with each other are discordant, and those lying nearly parallel with each other are harmonious.
This is the theoretical side of color harmony. The practical side is scarcely different; it simply modifies the theory. Brilliant blue and orange, which are theoretically harmonious, are scarcely as agreeable in each other's company as the rule would imply. The trouble, however, lies with the brilliancy. The golden calendula and the deep purple aster in association are violent and aggressive. Remove the one and the other and substitute pale-tinted flowers of these hues and the result will be harmonious.
Flower families are very likely to sustain harmonies of analogy. Hyacinths, sweet peas, and nasturtiums represent groups with very nearly related hues or tints. There is a predominating influence of crimson-pink among sweet peas, of lilac among hyacinths, and of orange among nasturtiums, yet the influence at times (in a particular variety) is wholly wanting and is replaced by an analogous tint or hue. It would be a rather nice bit of color adjustment which would result in a harmony superior to that of a careless grouping together of flowers gathered at random from any one of these three genera.
But the theory that analogous colors harmonize is correct only when not carried to excess. Attempts to force deep-hued flowers into harmony often lead to contrary results. A range of color from crimson to ultramarine depends for its harmony upon the careful grading of intermediate hues. Such colors, in full force, might do violence to each other. It is tempting the hardness of a diamond to pound it with a hammer. It is taxing crimson too heavily to expect it to show its beauty in the presence of strong violet! The effort should rather be to merge the individualities of the crimson and the purple flowers into a group and effect a play of color between the two.
The theory that colors at right angles on the wheel are discordant is also subject to some modification. Relatively the right-angled colors must be crude and strong to affect the eye objectionably. Yellow and red in the rose is an agreeable color-combination. Yellow and red dahlias crowded together are certainly harsh and unneighborly.
A country bouquet of asters, marigolds, fuchsias and dahlias is bad, because the country garden is not a part of it. Atmosphere, space, and a stretch of green foliage make a world of difference.
It is wisest to try the effect of one color upon another before allowing two or three strong hues to wage war with each other. It will be found quickly that white is a peacemaker, and green is an invaluable mediator. With these colors at command, the chances of discord are reduced to a minimum. Everything also depends upon simplicity in color-combinations. It is questionable whether a combination of more than two colors can be ever esthetically a success. The adjustment of many colors needs the hand of an expert.
The restriction of color in flowers.
The very strict limitation of range in flower-colors demands careful study if it would be thoroughly understood. Augustin Pyramus de Candolle divided flower- colors into two classes, which he named xanthic (red, scarlet, orange, gold-orange, yellow, and green-yellow), and cyanic (green-blue, blue, ultramarine-violet, violet, purple, and red). Further, he explained, flowers of the yellow (xanthic) series could pass into red or white but never into blue, and those of the blue (cyanic) series could pass into red or white but never into yellow. The theory is correct but it requires both modification and revision. Gold-orange must evidently displace yellow, and ultramarine-violet displace blue as series names; furthermore, the passage into red should not exceed scarlet-red in the xanthic series, or crimson-red in the cyanic series. Pure red logically should be the zero point between the two divisions, and not be included in either unless connected by analogous hues.
Gold-orange and ultramarine-violet are respectively the type-colors of the two series because each occupies a median position with equal influence on either hand. Red, occupying the median position between the two series, should and does exercise an equal influence on both; a casual glance at the chromatic scale demonstrates the fact. Neither the xanthic nor the cyanic series can exclusively claim the respective yellow and blue in absolute purity, for the cogent reason that among flowers yellow is associated with both these divisions, and a true blue scarcely appears at all. Further, if pure red is the zero point between the two series, then the consistent red of the xanthic order is scarlet-red, and that of the cyanic order is crimson- red; a pure red or pure yellow flower, therefore, consistently belongs to either order according to its xanthic or cyanic congeners.
The best proofs of the above statements are to be found among the flowers themselves. Asters belong to the cyanic group, but there is no blue aster. Tropaeolums belong to the xanthic group, but there is no pure yellow nasturtium; there are, however, ultramarine- violet asters and gold-yellow nasturtiums. There is a pure yellow, a golden orange, but no white marigold (Tagetes); the species is xanthic. The family Cruciferae is cyanic; it includes pure yellow, deeper yellow, and magenta flowers. The genus Hyacinthus is cyanic; it includes no blue flower, but many which are purple, violet, cyanic red, and modified yellow. Viola tricolor is cyanic; it includes a strong yellow along with intense purple and violet-ultramarine flowers. The genus Zinnia is xanthic, it includes no true yellow flower but many which range through all reds into cyanic crimson. The genus Rosa is cyanic; its flowers range from pure red to magenta-crimson, develop a strong, modified yellow, fuse yellow with crimson, but never approach the xanthic gold-orange. The genus Chrysanthemum is xanthic; its flowers include all yellows, skip pure orange and scarlet, and range from scarlet-red to cyanic red- crimson.
Species belonging to the cyanic group invariably produce white flowers which have an albino origin, species of the xanthic order produce white flowers which are not albinos but which invariably displace flowers of some strong, pure xanthic hue. For example, geraniums are white, red, scarlet, and pink, but never gold-orange or golden yellow. Carnations are white, red, and cardinal-red, but never scarlet, or orange. Chrysanthemums are yellow, white, and pink, but never orange or scarlet. Dahlias are scarlet, red, crimson-red, and even pure yellow, but never pure gold-orange, or orange.
It is perfectly evident from the foregoing examples that the range in a given genus, or species, is limited to what may be termed the swing of a pendulum upon the chromatic scale (Fig. 1038). The swing may extend over a quarter of the dial, rarely it does more. If it happens that two colors are developed, like violet and yellow, it will still be found that there is but one pendulum-swing and not two. Violet will be associated with contiguous hues, but yellow will be developed quite alone.
This, it is reasonable to believe, is direct evidence of a dual or treble origin of color in a flower group. Yellow cannot be evolved from violet, or vice versa. Necessarily, if white appears in a xanthic group, it must have evolved alone and independent of any color- range in that group. Undoubtedly the range of contiguous colors itself has evolved from a median hue which has spread out, fanlike, in graded variations within strict limits. Naturally, such statements conflict with the old theory that all flowers were originally yellow, but they are not inimical to the idea that the earlier ones might have been yellow, and later ones magenta, violent ultramarine, scarlet, and gold-orange. It is important to keep in mind the fact that a steamboat is not evolved from a locomotive.
It is further evident that yellow belongs quite as little to the xanthic as it does to the cyanic series, or, to put it more strongly, it belongs to neither. Its origin, independent of any "range, was undoubtedly the elimination of blue from chlorophyll. Hence, it is not surprising to find it in some modified form associated with both series, and in the cyanic series isolated. The flora of the northeastern United States is essentially cyanic. Twenty-one per cent is yellow, 21 per cent magenta and 22 per cent white; the remainder is 8 per cent xanthic and 28 per cent cyanic—the last mostly pink and light violet. The record is significant and points directly either to an arrested color development, or to a depauperate color condition in an inclement region; the former seems the more likely. An aggregation of cyanic-flowered plants are found in the north temperate zone, and of xanthic-flowered plants in the torrid zone.
Color activity.
Color results from a play of light upon a surface which rejects or absorbs certain rays. It is a significant fact that the red end of the spectrum comprehends those hues which are produced by the caloric rays of the sun, and the violet end those hues which are produced by the actinic rays. It is not surprising therefore that the coloring of vegetation is intense, and that xanthic flowers predominate under the equator. A separation of cyanic and xanthic flowers follows almost identically the thermal lines which band the great continents of the northern hemisphere, cyanic color prevailing north, and xanthic color south of the line marking 80° F. In a word, xanthic flowers belong to a very warm, and cyanic flowers to a temperate or cold climate. That they should become mixed in a narrow zone between the extremes is only natural; the rule, therefore, is in no way compromised thereby. That yellow, too, should appear in both cyanic and xanthic groups is not at all surprising. In the spectrum it holds a median position between the red and the violet ends; it is neither a hot nor a cold color, and has consequently evolved from its primitive condition as a constituent of the green in chlorophyll under any and all temperatures. That is the only way to account for its isolation when connected with cyanic groups.
It would appear, then, that magenta, violet, and ultramarines, together with gold-orange, orange, and red, are primitive colors quite as well as yellow and white. In what order they appeared upon the earth in the petals of flowers, it would be difficult to determine, but it is reasonable to think they appeared as original colors, in weak, perhaps, but absolute purity. Otherwise, the remarkable limitation of color-range must be accounted for by a less logical theory. Upset this limitation, and attempts to produce a blue rose, yellow aster, white nasturtium, or green carnation, should prove successful. Recognize the limitation, and the futility of such attempts becomes at once apparent, and the possibility of improving existing "strains" of color is illimitable. At some time or other in the distant past the law of limitations fixed the range of flower-colors; no new law of elasticity has since developed to remove the boundaries and thus aid the floriculturist in his ambition to produce what would prove to be a mere novelty. F. Schuyler Mathews.
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==Cultivation==
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===Propagation===
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===Pests and diseases===
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==Species==
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==Gallery==
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==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963
<!--- xxxxx *Flora: The Gardener's Bible, by Sean Hogan. Global Book Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0881925381 -->
<!--- xxxxx *American Horticultural Society: A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants, by Christopher Brickell, Judith D. Zuk. 1996. ISBN 0789419432 -->
<!--- xxxxx *Sunset National Garden Book. Sunset Books, Inc., 1997. ISBN 0376038608 -->
==External links==
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[[Category:Categorize]]
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