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Floriculture, or the growing of plants for ornamental purposes, particularly for flowers, is yearly assuming larger proportions in the United States. The industry consists in growing annual, biennial and perennial plants either under glass or outdoors, and in the disposal of the same in wholesale or retail markets. These products are sold as cut-flowers or potted plants to be used for indoor or outdoor home ornamentation, or for planting in public parks, about schools and other public buildings, or in cemeteries for ornamental purposes. (For home flower-gardens, see p. 1747.)
Importance of the industry.
The floricultural statistics taken from the census of 1910 show a marked increase in the importance of this branch of agriculture within the previous decade. The acreage, as given for this census, was 18,248 as compared with 9,307 as given for the census of 1900. The total valuation, as given in this census, was $34,872,000, an increase of 85.9 per cent as compared with the report of the census for 1900. The figures were compiled in nine large geographical divisions of the United States. These were New England, Middle Atlantic, South Atlantic, East North Central, West North Central, East South Central, West South Central, Mountain, and Pacific.
From its beginning the industry has centered around such large cities as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington. The business is now assuming considerable importance in Chicago, St. Louis and other large cities in the Middle States, the South and West. Statistics show that the largest floricultural output comes from the Middle Atlantic section. The states which compose this section arc New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The total valuation of products from this section is $11,810,076. The second section of importance is the East North Central, composed of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin, in which the figures given were $9,029,125. The third important section was New England, where the total valuation was $4,677,316. The smallest output comes from the Mountain section, composed of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and Nevada. Here the output was $753,914. The most rapid increase in the industry during the decade seems to have been in the Pacific section, composed of Washington, Oregon and California, where the valuation of flower products sprang from $726,968 in 1899 to $2,175,572 in 1909. New York leads other states in floricultural products, having an output of $5,110,221. The rank of other important states is Pennsylvania, Illinois, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Ohio.
Floriculture is intensive agriculture; consequently the acreage devoted to the industry is not so large as in other branches of agriculture. The amount of capital invested in glasshouses and their equipment is considerable. The return from the products, however, is immediate. Commercial growers and men making a business of greenhouse construction, estimate that it costs from 60 to 90 cents a square foot of ground covered to build and equip a modern range. The growers estimate that the products from such an area the first year should cover the cost of construction.
The flower-growing industry in the United States has not yet assumed the large proportions that it has in many European cities. The early colonists were an extremely practical people and paid little attention to the distinctly ornamental features about the home. As wealth increased, however, there came to be a more liberal use of flowers and plants; hence a larger demand for them in the industrial world.
Floricultural statistics for the Dominion of Canada are less complete than for the United States. The following are figures furnished through the courtesy of W. T. Macoun, Dominion Horticulturist:
Capital invested, approximately....................................$1,500,000
Square feet of gloss............................................... 6,000,000
Annual output..................................................... $1,000,000
Area covered....................................................... 120 acres
History of the industry.
The early history of the floricultural industry is obscure. It was merged to such an extent with other branches of horticulture and other industries that it could hardly be called a distinct industry. Previous to 1825 there is record of but few commercial flower-growing establishments. From 1830 to 1840, rapid progress was made in all branches of the work. The demand for glasshouse products increased to a considerable degree. Better houses were built, better systems of heating were devised, and consequently better products were put on the market.
Even the glasshouses of this period were extremely crude affairs. The framework was of large dimensions, the glass small in size, heavy and thick. The roofs were largely portable, being made of sash. About 1855 the first house having permanent sash-bars was built by Frederic A. Lord in Buffalo. The wooden superstructure of this house was heavy and the interior light conditions correspondingly poor, but it was a vast improvement over sash-houses. This type of construction was met with favor by glasshouse men, and many houses of a similar type soon were built. Glass of larger size was used, and this was embedded in putty instead of being placed on the outside as in sash-houses.
Previous to 1870 the principal business of the florist was the growing of potted plants. The flowers from these were often sold as cut-flowers, but the business centered about growing potted plants for outdoor bedding and other ornamental purposes. The cut- flowers of that early period were comparatively of a small-flowered, short-stemmed sort—heliotrope, camellia, tuberose, bouvardia and those of a like nature. Although the carnation was introduced as a florist crop about 1852, it was of little commercial importance previous to this date. About 1865, Dailledouze & Zeller of Flatbush, Long Island, began to breed the carnation, and between 1866 and 1872 several new varieties were introduced by this firm. Garden roses had been popular for many years, but few attempts were made to grow them under glass previous to 1870. They then came rapidly into public favor.
From 1870 to 1880 the demand for both potted plants and cut-flowers increased rapidly. More attention was paid to city and home ornamentation, and consequently more park and private conservatories were built. Each year witnessed improvements in construction, and consequently better grades of florists' products. In the last twenty years the advances which have been made in cultural conditions and the improvements in florists' crops have completely revolutionized the industry.
Improvements in glasshouse structures, and their heating.
The tendency among flower-growers now is to build large houses in preference to smaller ones. It has been proved that the cost of construction is cheaper and that these may be more easily heated, that plant-growth is healthier because of a more uniform temperature, that they are easier to construct and can be cared for with greater economy of labor. Glass of larger size is now used, and more attention is given details of construction to increase the light factors in the house. There have been many changes in methods of heating glasshouses during their history. From the crude methods of flues, various devices for heating with hot water and steam have been devised. Both of these methods have their advantages. In the earlier methods of hot- water heating, the pipes were large and the system was an expensive one to install. Steam, therefore, came into popular favor, especially in large commercial establishments. It is still generally used. In some sections of the country and in the growing of some species of plants, hot water is still used; but here better systems for forcing the circulation of water have been installed so it is possible to use pipes of smaller dimensions.
Improvements in flower crops.
The work of the plant-breeders began to produce results in the early nineties of last century. Many new varieties of chrysanthemums and carnations were put on the market. The violet then became an important florist crop. The early part of the twentieth century, however, witnessed a deluge of new varieties in practically all species. Breeding and improved cultural methods brought the qualities of the products far above anything produced in the previous century. Large-flowered carnations on long, stiff stems, violets of much larger sizes, and improved strains of chrysanthemums, roses and other species gave a remarkable impetus to the industry.
Previous to the beginning of the twentieth century, the American florist had interested himself in the culture of a wide variety of plants. In many cases the larger part of the products were sold at the range. The business, however, assumed such proportions that many up-to-date florists found that they could not profitably raise and dispose of their products at retail; consequently the retail flower-stores became more and more important factors in the disposal of the products. Wholesale commission houses and wholesale flower-markets were established in the larger cities so that the grower could devote nearly his entire time to the production of his crop. Many of the more progressive florists came to feel that they could not afford to grow a wide variety of plant species, but that it paid them better to grow one or two crops and to devote their whole attention to growing these in the finest manner possible so that they could produce flowers which were first quality in every respect; hence men came to be known as carnation, rose, violet, chrysanthemum, fern, palm and other specialists. This led to a wonderful improvement in the quality of flowers produced, and there was no call in the market for the inferior grades.
The buying public has had its influence in producing a better quality of florists' products. It has demanded not only better quality but something out of the ordinary. People tired of roses, carnations, violets and bulbous stock continually. The early part of the twentieth century witnessed a remarkable interest in orchids. The commercial man had to meet this demand. Twelve years ago an orchid could hardly be found outside of private conservatories. They were considered impossible to grow with financial success. Today nearly every up-to-date retail grower has his section of orchids, and nearly every large floricultural center has its orchid specialist. For many years it was considered impossible to get satisfactory results from sweet peas under glass. The introduction of new strains and careful study of cultural conditions made the culture of this crop possible. The forcing of hardy herbaceous perennials like antirrhinums, delphiniums, and the like, and the forcing of hardy shrubs and other rare, hardy stock has furnished the flower-grower with a wonderful range of the more unusual plants.
Many large American flower-producers are now managing their business on a departmental scale. There are retail and wholesale departments; palm, carnation, orchid, rose, chrysanthemum and bedding departments, each in charge of a specialist in growing that particular crop.
The flower exhibitions held from time to time in the larger cities have had a beneficial effect on the uplift of the business. These exhibitions have been viewed by thousands of retail buyers. The choicest products of the flower-grower's skill have been exhibited, and the public has become dissatisfied with the inferior grade of commercial flowers offered for sale in the average flower-shops. They have demanded better products, and it has been the work of the flower- grower to produce these qualities.
Literature.
Within the last ten years there has been a remarkable increase in literature on flower-growing. Such papers as "The Florists' Exchange," "The American Florist," "Florists' Review," "Horticulture," "Gardening," "Gardener's Chronicle of America," have kept* the grower closely in touch with the work in the gardening world. Many publications for the amateur, like "The Garden Magazine," "Country Life in America," "House & Garden," "Suburban Life" have assisted in giving the American people much valuable information regarding flower-growing about the home.
A long list of books might now be given, dealing with commercial and home flower-growing. Among these, valuable for the commercial man, are: "The American Carnation," C. W. Ward; "Commercial Rose-Culture," Eber Holmes; "Chrysanthemums for the Million," Charles H. Totty; "Violet-Culture," B. T. Galloway; "Orchid Culture," William Watson: "Florist's Manual," William Scott; "Plant-Culture,'* G. W. Oliver. Excellent books for the amateur are: "The Rose," H. B. Ellwanger; "Window-Gardening," H. B. Dorner; "The Garden Month by Month," Mrs. M. C. Sedgwick; "Making a Bulb Garden," Grace Tabor; "Roses and How to Grow Them," Doubleday Page & Co.; "House Plants and How to Grow Them,1' Parker T. Barnes. E. A. White.
Florida arrow-root: Zamia integrifolia.
Florida swamp lily: Crinum americanum.
Florist’s plants. A half-century ago the florist plant trade, although perhaps relatively of greater importance than at present, was not a prominent feature of the holiday trade. At Christmas there was some acceleration in the business, but this was overshadowed by the trade in cut-flowers. Easter was not a time of great plant sales. Church decorations in Protestant churches were not common. The sales of plants were more evenly distributed throughout the year, and the variety of plants sold was greater because the grower and consumer came in contact with each other, thus enabling the grower to dispose of plants which would not withstand the handling experienced by the plants of the present day. With the changing conditions in the family life of city residents, plants are no longer largely desired for window-gardens, but for temporary decoration of the living-rooms. The old type of plant-grower with his botanical collection has passed away, and in his place is the large commercial grower of a few staple plants which are grown in perfect condition. These growers produce a large quantity of plants for Christmas and then begin operations for Easter, as both of these dates now are times for the sending of gifts.
The trade in florist plants in the U. S., including bedding plants, is not less than $10,000,000, and it is encouraging that it is annually increasing without any diminution in the volume of the cut-flower business. Every up-to-date florist makes Christmas and Easter displays, and often special exhibits of chrysanthemums, and so on, are made when in season. The most successful of these displays are made in houses arranged for the purpose, for when made in an ordinary greenhouse with high benches, the taller plants are above the level of the eye and the effect is sacrificed. The best houses for displays are those of the conservatory type such as are seen in connection with "some of the best flower stores. An ordinary greenhouse is often adapted for the purpose by constructing low benches, 18 to 20 inches high, for displaying bulbous plants and omitting them entirely for tall plants. The object sought in all cases is to have the plants placed so that tie buyer looks down upon them. The show house is not very large for the reason that it is not always advisable to have too many plants of a kind in sight and also because at Easter the occurrence of warm, bright, unseasonable weather prevents keeping the plants in good condition. It is generally recognized that the display must be maintained in good condition by removing all unsightly plants and faded flowers. The stock should be replenished and rearranged every day.
The good salesman is one who has a knowledge of the care of plants, as well as their, good points, their appropriateness for special occasions, and so on. Judicious advice on these points has much to do in winning and retaining customers. When a sale is made, the plants are carefully tagged with the correct address and the time it is to be delivered. If the plant is intended as a present, the sender's card is usually placed in a waterproof envelope which is fastened to the delivery tag. Deliveries of Christmas and Easter plants particularly should be promptly made, for nothing creates more dissatisfaction than late delivery. This requires skill hi systematically arranging the plants according to the delivery routes, thus avoiding traversing the same territory a second time. It is axiomatic that the plant should be at its best on the day or at the function for which it is to be used. The weather has much to do with the condition of plants upon delivery. At Christmas, stock may be sent out twenty-four hours in advance, while at Easter stock delivered thus far in advance may not be satisfactory on Sunday.
All plants in pots, with the possible exception of the woody kinds, are staked and tied before handling. Plants are neatly wrapped with several thicknesses of paper to insure safe delivery. Plants with flowers which are easily bruised are usually wrapped with a sheet of cotton batting or waxed paper and then six to eight thicknesses of newspaper with clean plain paper outside. When plants must be shipped in cold weather, they must be wrapped as indicated and then set in strong wooden boxes. These boxes are approximately 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 8 inches deep. The corners are strengthened by the use of extra cleats. The box is first lined with corrugated paper, and then several thicknesses of newspaper which are left hanging over the edges of the box all around. Slightly dampened excelsior is used around the pots to prevent breakage and to make the package secure. The paper is then brought up over the plants and fastened (Fig. 1510). Over the top a frame is built of ½ x 4-inch cleating lumber which prevents damage to the plants (Fig. 1511).
The number of plants that can be had in perfection at Christmas is limited and does not change from year to year. Among the leading flowering plants are poinsettias in pots and pans, azaleas, cyclamen and Lorraine begonias. The more expensive plants are ericas (E. melanthera) and camellias.
The berried plants commonly grown are the Jerusalem cherry (Solanum capsicastrum), Christmas pepper (S. pseudo-capsicum), aucubas, ardisias, holly and Otaheite oranges.
The foliage plants include araucarias, boxwood, crotons, nephrolepis, Pandanus veitchii, Ficus pandurata and F. elastica, Dracaena (D. terminalis, D. fragrans, D. mandaeana, D. godseffiana, D. lord wolseley) and Adiantum.
Easter is a great plant day and there is a great variety of suitable plants. The leading flowering plant is, of course, Lilium longiflorum.
It would be difficult to determine the relative market value of the different plants, but among the bulbs tulips, hyacinths, narcissi and lilies-of-the-valley are staples. These are sold in pots or pans, singly or in plant combinations. A very large amount of bulbous material is sold at Easter. Cinerarias, Primula obconica and P. sinensis are a smaller factor than formerly on the large city markets, but still remain an important item in the smaller cities. Marguerites and spirea (Astilbe japonica), when well grown, find a good sale in New York. A number of violets and pansies planted in low dishes, and small blooming geraniums, from 3-inch pots, planted in 6- to 12-inch bulb pans, are salable plants in many localities. Among the shrubs the azaleas are most important, although in some cities they show a decline in popularity. Following these are genistas, which have been for many years a popular Easter plant. Hydrangea rosea and H. otaksa were long standard varieties, but now will probably give way to the new French varieties. In some cities hydrangeas are less used for Easter than for Memorial Day. Lilacs, Charles X, Marie Legraye and Madame Lemoine are among the best. The lilac has the disadvantage of a great display of wood and leaves before the terminal flowers charm the eye. It therefore requires accessories to relieve this effect, and the demand for this plant is limited. Rhododendrons are slowly gaining in popularity. Acacias and ericas are becoming more common each year. Acacia longifolia and A. paradoxa are now grown for market. Erica cavendishii is used for individual plants, while E. cupressina is used in making up baskets of plants. Bougainvillea sanderiana, like the rambler roses, may be made to assume definite forms which are especially beautiful when the bracts are well colored. Among the other shrubs more or less common are Azalea mollis. Deutzia gracilis, Spiraea van houtlei, double almond, hawthorns, and Wistaria multijuga. In the last decade the rambler roses have taken a prominent place among Easter plants and each year a larger number are grown. The crimson rambler was first used, but is now superseded by the more beautiful Dorothy Perkins, Tausendschon, Lady Gay, Newport Fairy and Hiawatha. The rambler roses possess the advantage that they can be trained into pleasing forms. The polyantha roses are popular also, and among the varieties used are Madame Norbert Levavasseur (Baby Rambler), Mrs. Cutbush and Orleans. The latter are very satisfactory when sold either as individual plants with waterproof crepe paper pot-covers or in baskets with other plants. The hybrid perpetuals are still grown, but not in so large quantities as formerly. The varieties now grown are Frau Karl Druschki, Mrs. John Laing and Magna Charta.
Easter brings a demand for some of the larger sizes of foliage plants for decorations in churches, retail stores, and the like. The small-sized ferns, dracenas and palms are required in making up baskets of plants.
The florist of fifty years ago thought that a good blooming plant did not need any aids to make it attractive. This has changed, and the florists arc. seeking every means to make their plants more attractive. The most inexpensive method of doing this is to use pot-covers of waterproof crepe paper in color suited to the subjects. Porto Rican or raffia matting in color is used in a similar manner.
The trade of the present day disposes of a great many plants in baskets or boxes. Individual plant- baskets, with handles, to hold even as large as 6- to 8-inch pots are often used. Baskets, usually of the peach-basket shape, are also utilized for an endless variety of combinations of flowering and foliage plants (Fig. 1512). The baskets are supplied with a metal receptacle or lining so that the pots may be removed from the plants, giving them the appearance of having been grown together. Formerly these receptacles were filled by the retailers, but now many are prepared at the greenhouses according to order and sent to the stores where all that is needed is to add the basket and the ribbons. The latter plan relieves the store of much work in the busy season, out may not result in as artistic combinations as can be secured by a person trained in the work. The manufacturers of florist supplies are striving to meet the demand for something new in baskets and boxes. New material, weaves and shapes, are seen every year. There is also a great variety of coloring. There are green, gilt, white, red, ivory, bronze and copper shades as well as two-tone effects, as red and green, white and green, blue and white, pink and white, and yellow and white. The variety offered is such that baskets can be secured in sizes to suit either the high-class or popular trade. The small florist usually begins by using some of the willow, rattan or splint baskets which are filled with inexpensive plants. Cedar tubs, wood and terra-cotta boxes are also used. The demand for pleasing arrangements of flowering and foliage plants in boxes, jardinieres, hampers, baskets, pans and dishes of fanciful design, light and airy, dainty and graceful, is increasing and is receiving the attention of the growers of holiday plants. It is generally recognized that the work offers as wide a scope for inventive genius and artistic discernment as any phase of the florist business.
A. C. Beal.
Flower is a popular or semi-technical term for the aggregate of structures having to do with sexual reproduction in the higher plants. The concept usually includes color, and a definite organization as outlined below; therefore, gymnosperms, ferns, and the lower plants are said not to have true flowers. As ordinarily understood, the flower is a showy structure useful for esthetic purposes, gratifying in color and often in odor, and in some way intimately connected with the production of seed; but analogous although inconspicuous structures are sometimes popularly recognized as "flowers." To the layman, many of our common herbs, shrubs and trees are said not to bear flowers at all, although the botanist recognizes that at least inconspicuous greenish flowers are borne by all of these plants unless they be ferns or gymnosperms.
Botanically considered, the flower when complete consists of four sets of organs from the center outward: the gynoecium, androecium, corolla, and calyx, to which may possibly be added a fifth, the disk (Figs. 1513-1516).
The gynoecium (Figs. 1517- 1519).—In the center are one or more small flask-like or pouch-like organs (pistils) which are hollow and contain tiny bud-like growths (ovules). The pistils collectively are termed the gynoecium (female household). The hollow ovule-bearing part of the pistil is the ovary. At the summit of the ovary is a more or less sticky or roughened surface, the stigma, which may rest directly on the ovary (sessile) or may be raised aloft on a stalk (the style). From the ovules seeds are developed (see Fertilization).
The fundamental or unit foliar organ of the gynoecium is termed a carpel. In the simplest case there is but one carpel, folded to form a pouch with the upper ventral leaf- surface within, and the margins forming a suture down one side. The structure thus formed is a simple pistil. The suture bears the ovules and is termed the placenta, and is normally ovuliferous throughout, but frequently only the uppermost or basal ovule of the row is present (apical and suspended, or basal and erect). In other cases there are several or many carpels but these remain distinct, then forming many simple pistils. In most cases, however, the carpels are more or less fusea, at least below, and the resulting pistil is said to be compound. The sutures are axially placed and the midribs are outward (anterior), the ventral surface of each carpel lining the ovarian cavity. There are, therefore, normally as many cells or locules in a compound ovary as there are carpels. Through the partical opening-out of each carpel while the margins of adjacent carpels still remain united, the ovary may become one-celled though still compound, as in the violet. The placenta will in this case be parietal (on the walls). In certain families (Caryophyllaceae;, Primulaceae) the compound ovaries are one-celled but have a basal placenta, or this basal placenta may project upward into the single chamber of the ovary as a central post on which the ovules are borne (free-central placenta) (Fig. 1515). To determine the number of carpels in a given pistil is often difficult. If there are several separate stigmas or styles, it is usually safe to infer that each represents a carpel. If the ovary is several-celled, each cell usually denotes a carpel and in one-celled ovaries the placenta; if parietal, denote the number of carpels. In the case of a pistil with a one-celled ovary, basal placenta, one style and one stigma, only developmental or phylogene tic studies will show how many carpels are present.
Ovaries are sometimes raised on a stalk within the flower, as in the caper family (gynophore) and in Coptis (thecophore). The styles and stigmas are frequently much modified for pollination purposes, as in the orchids and in the pitcher plant (Sarracenia). The androecium (Figs. 1520- 1522).—Surrounding the pistils are found one or more whorls of organs called stamens, collectively termed the androecium (male household). A stamen normally consists of a slender stalk (filament) capped by an enlarged part (anther), although this stalk is often wanting. The anther contains one, two or four cavities (locules or "cells") in which a powdery mass (pollen) is located. The so-called cells are not to be confused with the cells of the plant tissue. The gynoecium and androecium, both necessary for the production of good seed, are termed the essential organs of the flower. Ordinarily each stamen represents one foliar unit. When many stamens are present, this increase in number is brought about in one of three ways: by an increase in the number of whorls of stamens (Caryophyllaceae, Rosaceae) or an increase in length of the spiral (Ranunculus), by the conversion of petals into stamens, or by a breaking up of each individual stamen into many (St. John's-wort). The first method is by far the most common. In the last method, the origin is usually betrayed by the aggregation of the stamens in fascicles. Normally both filament and anther of each stamen is free from its neighbors, but in some cases the filaments are all joined into a tube around the pistil (monadelphous) as in the hollyhock, or into two groups (diadelphous) as in the pea family. These two groups are usually very unequal in the pea tribes, nine stamens being united while the tenth is free. In other cases the anthers may be coherent while the filaments are free (syngenecious), as in the Composite. In the Sterculiaceae, the filaments or tube of filaments are variously toothed, crested or otherwise modified; while in the Orchidaceae they are fused with the style to form the so-called column or gynandrium of the flower. In the milkweeds, each stamen bears a cornucopia-like appendage which together form the crown. In Viola, two of the filaments bear nectar-spurs.
The anthers are usually oval or oblong bodies fixed to the filament by the base (basal), or by the center (versatile). At maturity they contain normally two 1518. Head of simple pollen-sacs separated pistils in hepatica. by a sterile tissue (connective) which is a prolongation of the filament. The anther-sacs are sometimes four in number, sometimes reduced to one through fusion. The walls of the sacs contain a peculiar fibrous layer by the hygroscopic properties of which they are enabled to curve back, thus opening the pollen-chamber along definite prearranged lines and allowing the pollen to escape. The dehiscence is usually by a longitudinal slit, but it is frequently by terminal pores as in the Ericaceae, or rarely by transverse slits. In Vaccinium, the pores are carried aloft on long tube-like extensions of the anther, while in Berberis the pores are provided with an uplifting trap-door.
The pollen-grains are normally spherical or oval cells in which the two or three nuclei representing the male gametophyte are found. The wall consists of a delicate inner layer (inline), surrounded by a thicker cutinized layer (exine) which is either smooth or externally sculptured in various ways. Specialized places in the extine serve as germ-pores through which the pollen-tubes easily emerge. These pores are sometimes provided with actual lids (pumpkin and squash) which pop off at the proper time. The pollen in the Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae is more or less waxy and coheres into one or several masses (pollinia). The pollinia are in many cases produced into minute stalks which connect with a sticky gland that is designed to become attached to visiting insects. On the departure of the insect the gland, together with the attached pollinia, is carried away to the next flower. The pollen-grains of orchids, heaths and a few other plants are composed of two to four cells (compound).
Corolla.—-Outside the stamens is found a whorl of flat leaf-like usually colored organs termed petals or collectively the corolla. The petals are usually in one whorl and follow the numerical plan of the flower closely; rarely are they fewer or numerous. They are normally flat or concave colored bodies distinct from one another (polypetalous) and regularly spreading from the receptacle. But in many plants the petals are connate (gamopetalous) into one structure for a greater or less distance toward the apices. The united part is the tube, the lobed border the limb of the gamo- petalous corolla. The lobes or segments are either all alike and equally placed (regular corolla) or they vary much among themselves (irregular corolla).
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Floriculture, or the growing of plants for ornamental purposes, particularly for flowers, is yearly assuming larger proportions in the United States. The industry consists in growing annual, biennial and perennial plants either under glass or outdoors, and in the disposal of the same in wholesale or retail markets. These products are sold as cut-flowers or potted plants to be used for indoor or outdoor home ornamentation, or for planting in public parks, about schools and other public buildings, or in cemeteries for ornamental purposes. (For home flower-gardens, see p. 1747.)
Importance of the industry.
The floricultural statistics taken from the census of 1910 show a marked increase in the importance of this branch of agriculture within the previous decade. The acreage, as given for this census, was 18,248 as compared with 9,307 as given for the census of 1900. The total valuation, as given in this census, was $34,872,000, an increase of 85.9 per cent as compared with the report of the census for 1900. The figures were compiled in nine large geographical divisions of the United States. These were New England, Middle Atlantic, South Atlantic, East North Central, West North Central, East South Central, West South Central, Mountain, and Pacific.
From its beginning the industry has centered around such large cities as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington. The business is now assuming considerable importance in Chicago, St. Louis and other large cities in the Middle States, the South and West. Statistics show that the largest floricultural output comes from the Middle Atlantic section. The states which compose this section arc New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The total valuation of products from this section is $11,810,076. The second section of importance is the East North Central, composed of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin, in which the figures given were $9,029,125. The third important section was New England, where the total valuation was $4,677,316. The smallest output comes from the Mountain section, composed of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and Nevada. Here the output was $753,914. The most rapid increase in the industry during the decade seems to have been in the Pacific section, composed of Washington, Oregon and California, where the valuation of flower products sprang from $726,968 in 1899 to $2,175,572 in 1909. New York leads other states in floricultural products, having an output of $5,110,221. The rank of other important states is Pennsylvania, Illinois, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Ohio.
Floriculture is intensive agriculture; consequently the acreage devoted to the industry is not so large as in other branches of agriculture. The amount of capital invested in glasshouses and their equipment is considerable. The return from the products, however, is immediate. Commercial growers and men making a business of greenhouse construction, estimate that it costs from 60 to 90 cents a square foot of ground covered to build and equip a modern range. The growers estimate that the products from such an area the first year should cover the cost of construction.
The flower-growing industry in the United States has not yet assumed the large proportions that it has in many European cities. The early colonists were an extremely practical people and paid little attention to the distinctly ornamental features about the home. As wealth increased, however, there came to be a more liberal use of flowers and plants; hence a larger demand for them in the industrial world.
Floricultural statistics for the Dominion of Canada are less complete than for the United States. The following are figures furnished through the courtesy of W. T. Macoun, Dominion Horticulturist:
Capital invested, approximately....................................$1,500,000
Square feet of gloss............................................... 6,000,000
Annual output..................................................... $1,000,000
Area covered....................................................... 120 acres
History of the industry.
The early history of the floricultural industry is obscure. It was merged to such an extent with other branches of horticulture and other industries that it could hardly be called a distinct industry. Previous to 1825 there is record of but few commercial flower-growing establishments. From 1830 to 1840, rapid progress was made in all branches of the work. The demand for glasshouse products increased to a considerable degree. Better houses were built, better systems of heating were devised, and consequently better products were put on the market.
Even the glasshouses of this period were extremely crude affairs. The framework was of large dimensions, the glass small in size, heavy and thick. The roofs were largely portable, being made of sash. About 1855 the first house having permanent sash-bars was built by Frederic A. Lord in Buffalo. The wooden superstructure of this house was heavy and the interior light conditions correspondingly poor, but it was a vast improvement over sash-houses. This type of construction was met with favor by glasshouse men, and many houses of a similar type soon were built. Glass of larger size was used, and this was embedded in putty instead of being placed on the outside as in sash-houses.
Previous to 1870 the principal business of the florist was the growing of potted plants. The flowers from these were often sold as cut-flowers, but the business centered about growing potted plants for outdoor bedding and other ornamental purposes. The cut- flowers of that early period were comparatively of a small-flowered, short-stemmed sort—heliotrope, camellia, tuberose, bouvardia and those of a like nature. Although the carnation was introduced as a florist crop about 1852, it was of little commercial importance previous to this date. About 1865, Dailledouze & Zeller of Flatbush, Long Island, began to breed the carnation, and between 1866 and 1872 several new varieties were introduced by this firm. Garden roses had been popular for many years, but few attempts were made to grow them under glass previous to 1870. They then came rapidly into public favor.
From 1870 to 1880 the demand for both potted plants and cut-flowers increased rapidly. More attention was paid to city and home ornamentation, and consequently more park and private conservatories were built. Each year witnessed improvements in construction, and consequently better grades of florists' products. In the last twenty years the advances which have been made in cultural conditions and the improvements in florists' crops have completely revolutionized the industry.
Improvements in glasshouse structures, and their heating.
The tendency among flower-growers now is to build large houses in preference to smaller ones. It has been proved that the cost of construction is cheaper and that these may be more easily heated, that plant-growth is healthier because of a more uniform temperature, that they are easier to construct and can be cared for with greater economy of labor. Glass of larger size is now used, and more attention is given details of construction to increase the light factors in the house. There have been many changes in methods of heating glasshouses during their history. From the crude methods of flues, various devices for heating with hot water and steam have been devised. Both of these methods have their advantages. In the earlier methods of hot- water heating, the pipes were large and the system was an expensive one to install. Steam, therefore, came into popular favor, especially in large commercial establishments. It is still generally used. In some sections of the country and in the growing of some species of plants, hot water is still used; but here better systems for forcing the circulation of water have been installed so it is possible to use pipes of smaller dimensions.
Improvements in flower crops.
The work of the plant-breeders began to produce results in the early nineties of last century. Many new varieties of chrysanthemums and carnations were put on the market. The violet then became an important florist crop. The early part of the twentieth century, however, witnessed a deluge of new varieties in practically all species. Breeding and improved cultural methods brought the qualities of the products far above anything produced in the previous century. Large-flowered carnations on long, stiff stems, violets of much larger sizes, and improved strains of chrysanthemums, roses and other species gave a remarkable impetus to the industry.
Previous to the beginning of the twentieth century, the American florist had interested himself in the culture of a wide variety of plants. In many cases the larger part of the products were sold at the range. The business, however, assumed such proportions that many up-to-date florists found that they could not profitably raise and dispose of their products at retail; consequently the retail flower-stores became more and more important factors in the disposal of the products. Wholesale commission houses and wholesale flower-markets were established in the larger cities so that the grower could devote nearly his entire time to the production of his crop. Many of the more progressive florists came to feel that they could not afford to grow a wide variety of plant species, but that it paid them better to grow one or two crops and to devote their whole attention to growing these in the finest manner possible so that they could produce flowers which were first quality in every respect; hence men came to be known as carnation, rose, violet, chrysanthemum, fern, palm and other specialists. This led to a wonderful improvement in the quality of flowers produced, and there was no call in the market for the inferior grades.
The buying public has had its influence in producing a better quality of florists' products. It has demanded not only better quality but something out of the ordinary. People tired of roses, carnations, violets and bulbous stock continually. The early part of the twentieth century witnessed a remarkable interest in orchids. The commercial man had to meet this demand. Twelve years ago an orchid could hardly be found outside of private conservatories. They were considered impossible to grow with financial success. Today nearly every up-to-date retail grower has his section of orchids, and nearly every large floricultural center has its orchid specialist. For many years it was considered impossible to get satisfactory results from sweet peas under glass. The introduction of new strains and careful study of cultural conditions made the culture of this crop possible. The forcing of hardy herbaceous perennials like antirrhinums, delphiniums, and the like, and the forcing of hardy shrubs and other rare, hardy stock has furnished the flower-grower with a wonderful range of the more unusual plants.
Many large American flower-producers are now managing their business on a departmental scale. There are retail and wholesale departments; palm, carnation, orchid, rose, chrysanthemum and bedding departments, each in charge of a specialist in growing that particular crop.
The flower exhibitions held from time to time in the larger cities have had a beneficial effect on the uplift of the business. These exhibitions have been viewed by thousands of retail buyers. The choicest products of the flower-grower's skill have been exhibited, and the public has become dissatisfied with the inferior grade of commercial flowers offered for sale in the average flower-shops. They have demanded better products, and it has been the work of the flower- grower to produce these qualities.
Literature.
Within the last ten years there has been a remarkable increase in literature on flower-growing. Such papers as "The Florists' Exchange," "The American Florist," "Florists' Review," "Horticulture," "Gardening," "Gardener's Chronicle of America," have kept* the grower closely in touch with the work in the gardening world. Many publications for the amateur, like "The Garden Magazine," "Country Life in America," "House & Garden," "Suburban Life" have assisted in giving the American people much valuable information regarding flower-growing about the home.
A long list of books might now be given, dealing with commercial and home flower-growing. Among these, valuable for the commercial man, are: "The American Carnation," C. W. Ward; "Commercial Rose-Culture," Eber Holmes; "Chrysanthemums for the Million," Charles H. Totty; "Violet-Culture," B. T. Galloway; "Orchid Culture," William Watson: "Florist's Manual," William Scott; "Plant-Culture,'* G. W. Oliver. Excellent books for the amateur are: "The Rose," H. B. Ellwanger; "Window-Gardening," H. B. Dorner; "The Garden Month by Month," Mrs. M. C. Sedgwick; "Making a Bulb Garden," Grace Tabor; "Roses and How to Grow Them," Doubleday Page & Co.; "House Plants and How to Grow Them,1' Parker T. Barnes. E. A. White.
Florida arrow-root: Zamia integrifolia.
Florida swamp lily: Crinum americanum.
Florist’s plants. A half-century ago the florist plant trade, although perhaps relatively of greater importance than at present, was not a prominent feature of the holiday trade. At Christmas there was some acceleration in the business, but this was overshadowed by the trade in cut-flowers. Easter was not a time of great plant sales. Church decorations in Protestant churches were not common. The sales of plants were more evenly distributed throughout the year, and the variety of plants sold was greater because the grower and consumer came in contact with each other, thus enabling the grower to dispose of plants which would not withstand the handling experienced by the plants of the present day. With the changing conditions in the family life of city residents, plants are no longer largely desired for window-gardens, but for temporary decoration of the living-rooms. The old type of plant-grower with his botanical collection has passed away, and in his place is the large commercial grower of a few staple plants which are grown in perfect condition. These growers produce a large quantity of plants for Christmas and then begin operations for Easter, as both of these dates now are times for the sending of gifts.
The trade in florist plants in the U. S., including bedding plants, is not less than $10,000,000, and it is encouraging that it is annually increasing without any diminution in the volume of the cut-flower business. Every up-to-date florist makes Christmas and Easter displays, and often special exhibits of chrysanthemums, and so on, are made when in season. The most successful of these displays are made in houses arranged for the purpose, for when made in an ordinary greenhouse with high benches, the taller plants are above the level of the eye and the effect is sacrificed. The best houses for displays are those of the conservatory type such as are seen in connection with "some of the best flower stores. An ordinary greenhouse is often adapted for the purpose by constructing low benches, 18 to 20 inches high, for displaying bulbous plants and omitting them entirely for tall plants. The object sought in all cases is to have the plants placed so that tie buyer looks down upon them. The show house is not very large for the reason that it is not always advisable to have too many plants of a kind in sight and also because at Easter the occurrence of warm, bright, unseasonable weather prevents keeping the plants in good condition. It is generally recognized that the display must be maintained in good condition by removing all unsightly plants and faded flowers. The stock should be replenished and rearranged every day.
The good salesman is one who has a knowledge of the care of plants, as well as their, good points, their appropriateness for special occasions, and so on. Judicious advice on these points has much to do in winning and retaining customers. When a sale is made, the plants are carefully tagged with the correct address and the time it is to be delivered. If the plant is intended as a present, the sender's card is usually placed in a waterproof envelope which is fastened to the delivery tag. Deliveries of Christmas and Easter plants particularly should be promptly made, for nothing creates more dissatisfaction than late delivery. This requires skill hi systematically arranging the plants according to the delivery routes, thus avoiding traversing the same territory a second time. It is axiomatic that the plant should be at its best on the day or at the function for which it is to be used. The weather has much to do with the condition of plants upon delivery. At Christmas, stock may be sent out twenty-four hours in advance, while at Easter stock delivered thus far in advance may not be satisfactory on Sunday.
All plants in pots, with the possible exception of the woody kinds, are staked and tied before handling. Plants are neatly wrapped with several thicknesses of paper to insure safe delivery. Plants with flowers which are easily bruised are usually wrapped with a sheet of cotton batting or waxed paper and then six to eight thicknesses of newspaper with clean plain paper outside. When plants must be shipped in cold weather, they must be wrapped as indicated and then set in strong wooden boxes. These boxes are approximately 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 8 inches deep. The corners are strengthened by the use of extra cleats. The box is first lined with corrugated paper, and then several thicknesses of newspaper which are left hanging over the edges of the box all around. Slightly dampened excelsior is used around the pots to prevent breakage and to make the package secure. The paper is then brought up over the plants and fastened (Fig. 1510). Over the top a frame is built of ½ x 4-inch cleating lumber which prevents damage to the plants (Fig. 1511).
The number of plants that can be had in perfection at Christmas is limited and does not change from year to year. Among the leading flowering plants are poinsettias in pots and pans, azaleas, cyclamen and Lorraine begonias. The more expensive plants are ericas (E. melanthera) and camellias.
The berried plants commonly grown are the Jerusalem cherry (Solanum capsicastrum), Christmas pepper (S. pseudo-capsicum), aucubas, ardisias, holly and Otaheite oranges.
The foliage plants include araucarias, boxwood, crotons, nephrolepis, Pandanus veitchii, Ficus pandurata and F. elastica, Dracaena (D. terminalis, D. fragrans, D. mandaeana, D. godseffiana, D. lord wolseley) and Adiantum.
Easter is a great plant day and there is a great variety of suitable plants. The leading flowering plant is, of course, Lilium longiflorum.
It would be difficult to determine the relative market value of the different plants, but among the bulbs tulips, hyacinths, narcissi and lilies-of-the-valley are staples. These are sold in pots or pans, singly or in plant combinations. A very large amount of bulbous material is sold at Easter. Cinerarias, Primula obconica and P. sinensis are a smaller factor than formerly on the large city markets, but still remain an important item in the smaller cities. Marguerites and spirea (Astilbe japonica), when well grown, find a good sale in New York. A number of violets and pansies planted in low dishes, and small blooming geraniums, from 3-inch pots, planted in 6- to 12-inch bulb pans, are salable plants in many localities. Among the shrubs the azaleas are most important, although in some cities they show a decline in popularity. Following these are genistas, which have been for many years a popular Easter plant. Hydrangea rosea and H. otaksa were long standard varieties, but now will probably give way to the new French varieties. In some cities hydrangeas are less used for Easter than for Memorial Day. Lilacs, Charles X, Marie Legraye and Madame Lemoine are among the best. The lilac has the disadvantage of a great display of wood and leaves before the terminal flowers charm the eye. It therefore requires accessories to relieve this effect, and the demand for this plant is limited. Rhododendrons are slowly gaining in popularity. Acacias and ericas are becoming more common each year. Acacia longifolia and A. paradoxa are now grown for market. Erica cavendishii is used for individual plants, while E. cupressina is used in making up baskets of plants. Bougainvillea sanderiana, like the rambler roses, may be made to assume definite forms which are especially beautiful when the bracts are well colored. Among the other shrubs more or less common are Azalea mollis. Deutzia gracilis, Spiraea van houtlei, double almond, hawthorns, and Wistaria multijuga. In the last decade the rambler roses have taken a prominent place among Easter plants and each year a larger number are grown. The crimson rambler was first used, but is now superseded by the more beautiful Dorothy Perkins, Tausendschon, Lady Gay, Newport Fairy and Hiawatha. The rambler roses possess the advantage that they can be trained into pleasing forms. The polyantha roses are popular also, and among the varieties used are Madame Norbert Levavasseur (Baby Rambler), Mrs. Cutbush and Orleans. The latter are very satisfactory when sold either as individual plants with waterproof crepe paper pot-covers or in baskets with other plants. The hybrid perpetuals are still grown, but not in so large quantities as formerly. The varieties now grown are Frau Karl Druschki, Mrs. John Laing and Magna Charta.
Easter brings a demand for some of the larger sizes of foliage plants for decorations in churches, retail stores, and the like. The small-sized ferns, dracenas and palms are required in making up baskets of plants.
The florist of fifty years ago thought that a good blooming plant did not need any aids to make it attractive. This has changed, and the florists arc. seeking every means to make their plants more attractive. The most inexpensive method of doing this is to use pot-covers of waterproof crepe paper in color suited to the subjects. Porto Rican or raffia matting in color is used in a similar manner.
The trade of the present day disposes of a great many plants in baskets or boxes. Individual plant- baskets, with handles, to hold even as large as 6- to 8-inch pots are often used. Baskets, usually of the peach-basket shape, are also utilized for an endless variety of combinations of flowering and foliage plants (Fig. 1512). The baskets are supplied with a metal receptacle or lining so that the pots may be removed from the plants, giving them the appearance of having been grown together. Formerly these receptacles were filled by the retailers, but now many are prepared at the greenhouses according to order and sent to the stores where all that is needed is to add the basket and the ribbons. The latter plan relieves the store of much work in the busy season, out may not result in as artistic combinations as can be secured by a person trained in the work. The manufacturers of florist supplies are striving to meet the demand for something new in baskets and boxes. New material, weaves and shapes, are seen every year. There is also a great variety of coloring. There are green, gilt, white, red, ivory, bronze and copper shades as well as two-tone effects, as red and green, white and green, blue and white, pink and white, and yellow and white. The variety offered is such that baskets can be secured in sizes to suit either the high-class or popular trade. The small florist usually begins by using some of the willow, rattan or splint baskets which are filled with inexpensive plants. Cedar tubs, wood and terra-cotta boxes are also used. The demand for pleasing arrangements of flowering and foliage plants in boxes, jardinieres, hampers, baskets, pans and dishes of fanciful design, light and airy, dainty and graceful, is increasing and is receiving the attention of the growers of holiday plants. It is generally recognized that the work offers as wide a scope for inventive genius and artistic discernment as any phase of the florist business.
A. C. Beal.
Flower is a popular or semi-technical term for the aggregate of structures having to do with sexual reproduction in the higher plants. The concept usually includes color, and a definite organization as outlined below; therefore, gymnosperms, ferns, and the lower plants are said not to have true flowers. As ordinarily understood, the flower is a showy structure useful for esthetic purposes, gratifying in color and often in odor, and in some way intimately connected with the production of seed; but analogous although inconspicuous structures are sometimes popularly recognized as "flowers." To the layman, many of our common herbs, shrubs and trees are said not to bear flowers at all, although the botanist recognizes that at least inconspicuous greenish flowers are borne by all of these plants unless they be ferns or gymnosperms.
Botanically considered, the flower when complete consists of four sets of organs from the center outward: the gynoecium, androecium, corolla, and calyx, to which may possibly be added a fifth, the disk (Figs. 1513-1516).
The gynoecium (Figs. 1517- 1519).—In the center are one or more small flask-like or pouch-like organs (pistils) which are hollow and contain tiny bud-like growths (ovules). The pistils collectively are termed the gynoecium (female household). The hollow ovule-bearing part of the pistil is the ovary. At the summit of the ovary is a more or less sticky or roughened surface, the stigma, which may rest directly on the ovary (sessile) or may be raised aloft on a stalk (the style). From the ovules seeds are developed (see Fertilization).
The fundamental or unit foliar organ of the gynoecium is termed a carpel. In the simplest case there is but one carpel, folded to form a pouch with the upper ventral leaf- surface within, and the margins forming a suture down one side. The structure thus formed is a simple pistil. The suture bears the ovules and is termed the placenta, and is normally ovuliferous throughout, but frequently only the uppermost or basal ovule of the row is present (apical and suspended, or basal and erect). In other cases there are several or many carpels but these remain distinct, then forming many simple pistils. In most cases, however, the carpels are more or less fusea, at least below, and the resulting pistil is said to be compound. The sutures are axially placed and the midribs are outward (anterior), the ventral surface of each carpel lining the ovarian cavity. There are, therefore, normally as many cells or locules in a compound ovary as there are carpels. Through the partical opening-out of each carpel while the margins of adjacent carpels still remain united, the ovary may become one-celled though still compound, as in the violet. The placenta will in this case be parietal (on the walls). In certain families (Caryophyllaceae;, Primulaceae) the compound ovaries are one-celled but have a basal placenta, or this basal placenta may project upward into the single chamber of the ovary as a central post on which the ovules are borne (free-central placenta) (Fig. 1515). To determine the number of carpels in a given pistil is often difficult. If there are several separate stigmas or styles, it is usually safe to infer that each represents a carpel. If the ovary is several-celled, each cell usually denotes a carpel and in one-celled ovaries the placenta; if parietal, denote the number of carpels. In the case of a pistil with a one-celled ovary, basal placenta, one style and one stigma, only developmental or phylogene tic studies will show how many carpels are present.
Ovaries are sometimes raised on a stalk within the flower, as in the caper family (gynophore) and in Coptis (thecophore). The styles and stigmas are frequently much modified for pollination purposes, as in the orchids and in the pitcher plant (Sarracenia). The androecium (Figs. 1520- 1522).—Surrounding the pistils are found one or more whorls of organs called stamens, collectively termed the androecium (male household). A stamen normally consists of a slender stalk (filament) capped by an enlarged part (anther), although this stalk is often wanting. The anther contains one, two or four cavities (locules or "cells") in which a powdery mass (pollen) is located. The so-called cells are not to be confused with the cells of the plant tissue. The gynoecium and androecium, both necessary for the production of good seed, are termed the essential organs of the flower. Ordinarily each stamen represents one foliar unit. When many stamens are present, this increase in number is brought about in one of three ways: by an increase in the number of whorls of stamens (Caryophyllaceae, Rosaceae) or an increase in length of the spiral (Ranunculus), by the conversion of petals into stamens, or by a breaking up of each individual stamen into many (St. John's-wort). The first method is by far the most common. In the last method, the origin is usually betrayed by the aggregation of the stamens in fascicles. Normally both filament and anther of each stamen is free from its neighbors, but in some cases the filaments are all joined into a tube around the pistil (monadelphous) as in the hollyhock, or into two groups (diadelphous) as in the pea family. These two groups are usually very unequal in the pea tribes, nine stamens being united while the tenth is free. In other cases the anthers may be coherent while the filaments are free (syngenecious), as in the Composite. In the Sterculiaceae, the filaments or tube of filaments are variously toothed, crested or otherwise modified; while in the Orchidaceae they are fused with the style to form the so-called column or gynandrium of the flower. In the milkweeds, each stamen bears a cornucopia-like appendage which together form the crown. In Viola, two of the filaments bear nectar-spurs.
The anthers are usually oval or oblong bodies fixed to the filament by the base (basal), or by the center (versatile). At maturity they contain normally two 1518. Head of simple pollen-sacs separated pistils in hepatica. by a sterile tissue (connective) which is a prolongation of the filament. The anther-sacs are sometimes four in number, sometimes reduced to one through fusion. The walls of the sacs contain a peculiar fibrous layer by the hygroscopic properties of which they are enabled to curve back, thus opening the pollen-chamber along definite prearranged lines and allowing the pollen to escape. The dehiscence is usually by a longitudinal slit, but it is frequently by terminal pores as in the Ericaceae, or rarely by transverse slits. In Vaccinium, the pores are carried aloft on long tube-like extensions of the anther, while in Berberis the pores are provided with an uplifting trap-door.
The pollen-grains are normally spherical or oval cells in which the two or three nuclei representing the male gametophyte are found. The wall consists of a delicate inner layer (inline), surrounded by a thicker cutinized layer (exine) which is either smooth or externally sculptured in various ways. Specialized places in the extine serve as germ-pores through which the pollen-tubes easily emerge. These pores are sometimes provided with actual lids (pumpkin and squash) which pop off at the proper time. The pollen in the Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae is more or less waxy and coheres into one or several masses (pollinia). The pollinia are in many cases produced into minute stalks which connect with a sticky gland that is designed to become attached to visiting insects. On the departure of the insect the gland, together with the attached pollinia, is carried away to the next flower. The pollen-grains of orchids, heaths and a few other plants are composed of two to four cells (compound).
Corolla.—-Outside the stamens is found a whorl of flat leaf-like usually colored organs termed petals or collectively the corolla. The petals are usually in one whorl and follow the numerical plan of the flower closely; rarely are they fewer or numerous. They are normally flat or concave colored bodies distinct from one another (polypetalous) and regularly spreading from the receptacle. But in many plants the petals are connate (gamopetalous) into one structure for a greater or less distance toward the apices. The united part is the tube, the lobed border the limb of the gamo- petalous corolla. The lobes or segments are either all alike and equally placed (regular corolla) or they vary much among themselves (irregular corolla).
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