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Cut-flower industry in north America. The feature that most distinguishes American floriculture from that of Europe is the great preponderance of the cut-flower trade as compared with the sales of plants. Forty years ago the passion of Americans for cut-flowers was remarked by travelers, but how ever important the cut-flower trade may then have appeared it has had a marvelous growth since that time. Prior to the Civil War it would have been impossible to purchase any considerable quantity of cut-flowers in the winter season in any of the large cities. The greenhouses were small flue-heated structures in which a great variety of plants was grown; hence it would have been impossible to secure a quantity of any one kind. There were no middlemen to collect even the small quantities produced in a locality, and when large numbers of blooms were required, advance notice was expected and the person wishing the flowers had to do the collecting from the various establishments. After the period mentioned, floricultural establishments rapidly increased in number and size. This growth has continued until today. Instead of being concentrated about large cities, there is scarcely a city of 5,000 or even less that does not have its florist. Not less than $100,000,000 is now invested in the cultivation and sale of cut-flowers in America. Although statistics of the cut-flowers alone are not available, a conservative estimate based on the United States census of 1910 places their annual value at $25,000,000.

Cut-flower industry in north America. The feature that most distinguishes American floriculture from that of Europe is the great preponderance of the cut-flower trade as compared with the sales of plants. Forty years ago the passion of Americans for cut-flowers was remarked by travelers, but how ever important the cut-flower trade may then have appeared it has had a marvelous growth since that time. Prior to the Civil War it would have been impossible to purchase any considerable quantity of cut-flowers in the winter season in any of the large cities. The greenhouses were small flue-heated structures in which a great variety of plants was grown; hence it would have been impossible to secure a quantity of any one kind. There were no middlemen to collect even the small quantities produced in a locality, and when large numbers of blooms were required, advance notice was expected and the person wishing the flowers had to do the collecting from the various establishments. After the period mentioned, floricultural establishments rapidly increased in number and size. This growth has continued until today. Instead of being concentrated about large cities, there is scarcely a city of 5,000 or even less that does not have its florist. Not less than $100,000,000 is now invested in the cultivation and sale of cut-flowers in America. Although statistics of the cut-flowers alone are not available, a conservative estimate based on the United States census of 1910 places their annual value at $25,000,000.

From forty to sixty years ago the camellia was the most valued cut-flower, either for personal adornment or for bouquets, and sometimes as much as $1, $2 and even $3 were obtained for single flowers at the height of the holiday season. Then came a period of decline during which they were almost forgotten except in a few private collections, but now they are seen upon the market as pot-plants. The florist of the present generation wonders how they could have been admired to the extent that they should lead as cut-flowers. Perhaps no better idea of the requirements of the former cut- flower trade can be given than to quote the record of a leading New York florist establishment for 1867 which shows a product as follows: Camellias about 45,000, bouvardias 20,000, carnations 70,000. double primroses 100,000, and tuberoses 50,000. Other flowers on the market in those days were daphne, abutilon, callas. sweet alyssum, poinsettia, eupatorium, heliotrope and a few tea roses. The most profitable white cut-flowers, in the opinion of many florists, were Stevia serrata, Double White camellia, Calla aethiopica, Lilium candidum, Deutzia gracilis, and Double White Chinese primrose.

From forty to sixty years ago the camellia was the most valued cut-flower, either for personal adornment or for bouquets, and sometimes as much as $1, $2 and even $3 were obtained for single flowers at the height of the holiday season. Then came a period of decline during which they were almost forgotten except in a few private collections, but now they are seen upon the market as pot-plants. The florist of the present generation wonders how they could have been admired to the extent that they should lead as cut-flowers. Perhaps no better idea of the requirements of the former cut- flower trade can be given than to quote the record of a leading New York florist establishment for 1867 which shows a product as follows: Camellias about 45,000, bouvardias 20,000, carnations 70,000. double primroses 100,000, and tuberoses 50,000. Other flowers on the market in those days were daphne, abutilon, callas. sweet alyssum, poinsettia, eupatorium, heliotrope and a few tea roses. The most profitable white cut-flowers, in the opinion of many florists, were Stevia serrata, Double White camellia, Calla aethiopica, Lilium candidum, Deutzia gracilis, and Double White Chinese primrose.

It will be noted that roses were not important in the cut-flower trade of this period. It is a fact that very few were grown under glass. A few florists were growing Bon Silene, Lamarque and Safrano roses, occasionally devoting an entire house to them, but more often in houses with other flowers. The rapidly-awakening demand for all kinds of flowers brought good prices for roses and stimulated the florists to give this flower more attention. The time was one of changing ideals and the old formal camellia, show dahlia and Chinese chrysanthemum were passing, while new and less formal flowers were coming into favor. The flower- buying public, however, wanted something larger than the small tea varieties then grown. Every new variety from Europe that had any promise was tried, and from that day to this scarcely a new introduction has escaped a searching test as to its adaptability for culture under glass. The Marechal Niel was grown for the discriminating trade, and it continued the leading variety until it was supplanted by the everblooming, more prolific and more easily cultivated Perle des Jardins. Likewise, the hybrid perpetuals were tried, and some of them, notably General Jacqueminot, were found to force well. This variety, when it could be had for the holidays, brought $1 and $2 a bud.

It will be noted that roses were not important in the cut-flower trade of this period. It is a fact that very few were grown under glass. A few florists were growing Bon Silene, Lamarque and Safrano roses, occasionally devoting an entire house to them, but more often in houses with other flowers. The rapidly-awakening demand for all kinds of flowers brought good prices for roses and stimulated the florists to give this flower more attention. The time was one of changing ideals and the old formal camellia, show dahlia and Chinese chrysanthemum were passing, while new and less formal flowers were coming into favor. The flower- buying public, however, wanted something larger than the small tea varieties then grown. Every new variety from Europe that had any promise was tried, and from that day to this scarcely a new introduction has escaped a searching test as to its adaptability for culture under glass. The Marechal Niel was grown for the discriminating trade, and it continued the leading variety until it was supplanted by the everblooming, more prolific and more easily cultivated Perle des Jardins. Likewise, the hybrid perpetuals were tried, and some of them, notably General Jacqueminot, were found to force well. This variety, when it could be had for the holidays, brought $1 and $2 a bud.

The roses of this time were produced on plants grown in deep beds or in pots or boxes. The latter method enabled the grower better to time his crops, while the former involved less time and attention. The endeavor to secure the advantages of both naturally resulted in the shallow raised bench, and this method of growing cut-flowers has been adopted for practically all now grown in large quantities; in fact, this system of culture is perhaps the greatest single feature which distinguishes American floriculture! methods from those of Europe. Simultaneously it became very generally recognized that to grow roses successfully required separate houses and a different temperature. For a long time it was thought that a special form or construction was necessary, viz., the three-quarter span, but now the even-span house is in general use.

The roses of this time were produced on plants grown in deep beds or in pots or boxes. The latter method enabled the grower better to time his crops, while the former involved less time and attention. The endeavor to secure the advantages of both naturally resulted in the shallow raised bench, and this method of growing cut-flowers has been adopted for practically all now grown in large quantities; in fact, this system of culture is perhaps the greatest single feature which distinguishes American floriculture! methods from those of Europe. Simultaneously it became very generally recognized that to grow roses successfully required separate houses and a different temperature. For a long time it was thought that a special form or construction was necessary, viz., the three-quarter span, but now the even-span house is in general use.

The development in chrysanthemums has been no less marked. From the old formal Chinese sorts, the popular fancy turned to the large informal Japanese kinds. Now a change to the single and pompon types is being experienced. The varieties of greatest commercial importance have been for the last ten or fifteen years of American origin. The English, French and, finally, the Australian varieties have led as exhibition flowers, but only an occasional variety has proved meritorious as market cut-flowers. (See Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Rose, and other special articles.)

The development in chrysanthemums has been no less marked. From the old formal Chinese sorts, the popular fancy turned to the large informal Japanese kinds. Now a change to the single and pompon types is being experienced. The varieties of greatest commercial importance have been for the last ten or fifteen years of American origin. The English, French and, finally, the Australian varieties have led as exhibition flowers, but only an occasional variety has proved meritorious as market cut-flowers. (See Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Rose, and other special articles.)

At the present time the important cut-flowers are roses, carnations, violets, chrysanthemums, sweet peas, lilies, narcissi, orchids, lilies-of-the-valley, mignonette, snapdragons, marguerites and gardenias. A modern cut-flower establishment in the region of New York grows for its wholesale trade the following numbers of plants:

 

At the present time the important cut-flowers are roses, carnations, violets, chrysanthemums, sweet peas, lilies, narcissi, orchids, lilies-of-the-valley, mignonette, snapdragons, marguerites and gardenias. A modern cut-flower establishment in the region of New York grows for its wholesale trade the following numbers of plants:

 

Rows ………………………………………100,000

Rows ………………………………………100,000

Chrysanthemums……………………… 240,000

Chrysanthemums……………………… 240,000

Lilies-of-the-valley……………………… 300,000

Lilies-of-the-valley……………………… 300,000

Orchids…………………………………….. 25,000

Orchids…………………………………….. 25,000

  These are grown in a range of houses comprising 900,000 square feet of glass requiring 8,000 tons of coal, 300 employees, 25 horses, 4 automobiles, and a 250-acre farm with a dairy of 160 cows to suppy the manure required.

 

These are grown in a range of houses comprising 900,000 square feet of glass requiring 8,000 tons of coal, 300 employees, 25 horses, 4 automobiles, and a 250-acre farm with a dairy of 160 cows to suppy the manure required.

The past ten years have witnessed the development of the new winter-flowering types of sweet peas, and now these flowers bid fair to rival the violet and chrysanthemum for position after roses and carnations.

The past ten years have witnessed the development of the new winter-flowering types of sweet peas, and now these flowers bid fair to rival the violet and chrysanthemum for position after roses and carnations.

Orchids, particularly cattleyas, now are being grown by commercial florists for cut-flowers. Although of recent development, during the last ten or twelve years, all large establishments have an orchid department, while many smaller growers are specializing in their culture.

Orchids, particularly cattleyas, now are being grown by commercial florists for cut-flowers. Although of recent development, during the last ten or twelve years, all large establishments have an orchid department, while many smaller growers are specializing in their culture.

Lilies, through the means of cold storage, may now be had by forcing throughout the year. The varieties of Japanese longiflorums have largely supplanted the old Lilium Harrisii kind. Lilium speciosum varieties are now largely grown.

Lilies, through the means of cold storage, may now be had by forcing throughout the year. The varieties of Japanese longiflorums have largely supplanted the old Lilium Harrisii kind. Lilium speciosum varieties are now largely grown.

The antirrhinum is now being grown by several specialists and doubtless will yield varieties adapted to greenhouse culture.

The antirrhinum is now being grown by several specialists and doubtless will yield varieties adapted to greenhouse culture.

The most important outdoor flowers for cutting are peonies, gladioli and asters. The peony is now a most important Memorial Day cut-flower, and many acres are devoted to its culture in regions in which the improved varieties mature their flowers early enough. By means of cold storage, flowers of certain varieties may be kept in good condition for as much as four weeks. The florists are enabled to have a supply of this flower for commencements, weddings, and the like, throughout the latter part of May, June and early July.

The most important outdoor flowers for cutting are peonies, gladioli and asters. The peony is now a most important Memorial Day cut-flower, and many acres are devoted to its culture in regions in which the improved varieties mature their flowers early enough. By means of cold storage, flowers of certain varieties may be kept in good condition for as much as four weeks. The florists are enabled to have a supply of this flower for commencements, weddings, and the like, throughout the latter part of May, June and early July.

Gladioli are increasing in popularity as summer cut- flowers because of their keeping qualities under ordinary conditions. Not only are the white varieties useful, but the magnificent colored varieties are being used in large numbers for bouquets on dining-tables in hotels and restaurants.

Gladioli are increasing in popularity as summer cut- flowers because of their keeping qualities under ordinary conditions. Not only are the white varieties useful, but the magnificent colored varieties are being used in large numbers for bouquets on dining-tables in hotels and restaurants.

The selling.

The selling.

The present methods of the growers in disposing of their flowers to the retail florists are as follows: The large wholesale growers maintain wholesale stores of their own, dealing with the retailers direct and conducting a shipping trade. The growers at a distance from the city market usually consign to the wholesale commission florist whose field is as broad as that of the wholesale grower. These two classes of florists keep in close touch with their customers, even those at a distance, by the ordinary means of communication and in some cases by traveling representatives. The smaller growers living close to a large city adopt any one of five methods, that is, (1) form a cooperative association with an expert salesman to sell the flowers; (2) organize a flower-market and operate a flower-stand; (3) consign the flowers to a commission florist; (4) supply certain retailers regularly; (5) operate their own retail stores. The particular method to be adopted in any individual case depends upon the local conditions and the business ability of the grower. The grower-specialist usually will find it more remunerative to arrange with retailers better able to dispose of his high-class product.

The present methods of the growers in disposing of their flowers to the retail florists are as follows: The large wholesale growers maintain wholesale stores of their own, dealing with the retailers direct and conducting a shipping trade. The growers at a distance from the city market usually consign to the wholesale commission florist whose field is as broad as that of the wholesale grower. These two classes of florists keep in close touch with their customers, even those at a distance, by the ordinary means of communication and in some cases by traveling representatives. The smaller growers living close to a large city adopt any one of five methods, that is, (1) form a cooperative association with an expert salesman to sell the flowers; (2) organize a flower-market and operate a flower-stand; (3) consign the flowers to a commission florist; (4) supply certain retailers regularly; (5) operate their own retail stores. The particular method to be adopted in any individual case depends upon the local conditions and the business ability of the grower. The grower-specialist usually will find it more remunerative to arrange with retailers better able to dispose of his high-class product.

The development of the methods of packing and handling flowers has been a great factor in the business. In the old days flowers were brought to market, or as was more often the case, the retailers went to the growers and carried them into the city in market- baskets. They were delivered to the customers in the same way. When flowers were to be shipped, which was seldom, any convenient box was adapted to the purpose. At present the florists employ wooden and folding paper boxes for different classes of trade. These are in various sizes adapted to the kind of flower to be packed and to the quality shipped. Furthermore, the package is clean, light, strong and entirely in keeping with the goods. The perfection of the railway and express service has facilitated the delivery of flowers to the consignee. Not only has this enabled growers to get their flowers to the city, but has made it possible for florists over the country to secure flowers when they do not have a sufficient supply. The great wholesale flower business of Chicago is built in a large measure upon the demand of florists in towns and cities over the vast territory extending from Winnipeg to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Alleghanies to the Rockies. The packages now used to carry the flowers to the wholesale market are either return or gift boxes; the former, are strong wooden boxes with a hinged lid 12 to 16 inches wide and 5 to 6 feet long. These packages are returned to the grower. Some do not find it profitable or possible to have shipping-boxes or -crates returned and must use gift boxes which may be of wood or heavy paper. The common box used by the wholesalers in shipping flowers to distant customers when the package must be handled many times, is the light wooden box. This is made of thin wood, ½inch ends and ¼-inch tops, bottoms and sides, with two interior cleats to hold the flowers down. These boxes are made in sizes 4 to 8 inches deep, 12 to 16 inches wide, and 36 to 50 inches or more long. The boxes are first lined with paper, usually four to eight thicknesses of newspapers, according to the season. Then a layer of waxed paper is put in. Roses, whether on their way into or out of the wholesale market, are seldom bunched. Carnations, when shipped out or when sent in by a wholesale grower to his own store, are usually not bunched, but growers who sell through the commission florist should bunch the flowers as it facilitates handling when the flowers arrive on the market. Sweet peas, violets and similar flowers are always bunched. The number of flowers in a bunch will depend upon the requirements of the market. Usually sweet pea bunches contain twenty-five: violet^ fifty or one hundred; peonies, thirteen; and carnations, twenty-five flowers. The bunches of violets are encircled by a rim of twenty to thirty leaves and the combination must be attractively done if even the best flowers are to bring a good price. Sweet peas are bunched without foliage, while most flowers bear their natural foliage.

The development of the methods of packing and handling flowers has been a great factor in the business. In the old days flowers were brought to market, or as was more often the case, the retailers went to the growers and carried them into the city in market- baskets. They were delivered to the customers in the same way. When flowers were to be shipped, which was seldom, any convenient box was adapted to the purpose. At present the florists employ wooden and folding paper boxes for different classes of trade. These are in various sizes adapted to the kind of flower to be packed and to the quality shipped. Furthermore, the package is clean, light, strong and entirely in keeping with the goods. The perfection of the railway and express service has facilitated the delivery of flowers to the consignee. Not only has this enabled growers to get their flowers to the city, but has made it possible for florists over the country to secure flowers when they do not have a sufficient supply. The great wholesale flower business of Chicago is built in a large measure upon the demand of florists in towns and cities over the vast territory extending from Winnipeg to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Alleghanies to the Rockies. The packages now used to carry the flowers to the wholesale market are either return or gift boxes; the former, are strong wooden boxes with a hinged lid 12 to 16 inches wide and 5 to 6 feet long. These packages are returned to the grower. Some do not find it profitable or possible to have shipping-boxes or -crates returned and must use gift boxes which may be of wood or heavy paper. The common box used by the wholesalers in shipping flowers to distant customers when the package must be handled many times, is the light wooden box. This is made of thin wood, ½inch ends and ¼-inch tops, bottoms and sides, with two interior cleats to hold the flowers down. These boxes are made in sizes 4 to 8 inches deep, 12 to 16 inches wide, and 36 to 50 inches or more long. The boxes are first lined with paper, usually four to eight thicknesses of newspapers, according to the season. Then a layer of waxed paper is put in. Roses, whether on their way into or out of the wholesale market, are seldom bunched. Carnations, when shipped out or when sent in by a wholesale grower to his own store, are usually not bunched, but growers who sell through the commission florist should bunch the flowers as it facilitates handling when the flowers arrive on the market. Sweet peas, violets and similar flowers are always bunched. The number of flowers in a bunch will depend upon the requirements of the market. Usually sweet pea bunches contain twenty-five: violet^ fifty or one hundred; peonies, thirteen; and carnations, twenty-five flowers. The bunches of violets are encircled by a rim of twenty to thirty leaves and the combination must be attractively done if even the best flowers are to bring a good price. Sweet peas are bunched without foliage, while most flowers bear their natural foliage.

Long-stem flowers, such as roses and carnations, when not tied in bunches, are packed one by one in rows across the width of the box, beginning at one end. The first row rests upon a pillow made of a roll of paper, and each succeeding row is separated from the preceding row by a strip of wax paper. This continues until five rows have been put in each end of the box. Five or six rows of flowers in each end constitute a layer. The flowers of each layer are covered with a sheet of wax paper, and the packing goes on until the box is filled; but only four to six layers should be put in a box. provision for good ventilation be always provided: if too much water accumulates inside the glass it can be wiped off with a cloth. They are somewhat obsolete devices for providing a close atmosphere and intensifying bottom heat. The modern gardener finds that sunlight and shading with papers put directly over the cuttings is quite sufficient for all plants except a few difficult subjects. Figs. 1163-1165 illustrate forms of hand structures. Out-of-doors cold- frames are employed for striking cuttings in summer. They are made of concrete or plank, and are about 5½ feet wide, 18 inches deep behind and 12 inches in front. They are of any convenient length, which is a multiple of three and are covered with standard hotbed sash. Instead of coldframes, light hotbeds are sometimes employed for rooting cuttings in the open air in summer. They entail more care and the results do not offset the gain.

Long-stem flowers, such as roses and carnations, when not tied in bunches, are packed one by one in rows across the width of the box, beginning at one end. The first row rests upon a pillow made of a roll of paper, and each succeeding row is separated from the preceding row by a strip of wax paper. This continues until five rows have been put in each end of the box. Five or six rows of flowers in each end constitute a layer. The flowers of each layer are covered with a sheet of wax paper, and the packing goes on until the box is filled; but only four to six layers should be put in a box. provision for good ventilation be always provided: if too much water accumulates inside the glass it can be wiped off with a cloth. They are somewhat obsolete devices for providing a close atmosphere and intensifying bottom heat. The modern gardener finds that sunlight and shading with papers put directly over the cuttings is quite sufficient for all plants except a few difficult subjects. Figs. 1163-1165 illustrate forms of hand structures. Out-of-doors cold- frames are employed for striking cuttings in summer. They are made of concrete or plank, and are about 5½ feet wide, 18 inches deep behind and 12 inches in front. They are of any convenient length, which is a multiple of three and are covered with standard hotbed sash. Instead of coldframes, light hotbeds are sometimes employed for rooting cuttings in the open air in summer. They entail more care and the results do not offset the gain.

Cuttings of growing wood. Figs. 1166-1171.

Cuttings of growing wood. Figs. 1166-1171.

These cuttings are made either of the soft growing tips, as in coleus (Fig. 1166; also Fig. 1027, p. 827). salvia, verbena (Fig. 1167), geranium (Fig. 1168) and others, or, of the same wood in more mature condition, but by no means ripe, as in tender roses (Fig. 1169), and Azalea indica. The cuttings of plants like Euphorbia pulcherrima, erica, epacris, are used in the soft growing state, if a well-built propagating-house is obtainable; but in an ordinary house, a part of which is used for other purposes, the older and better ripened wood will be more successful.

These cuttings are made either of the soft growing tips, as in coleus (Fig. 1166; also Fig. 1027, p. 827). salvia, verbena (Fig. 1167), geranium (Fig. 1168) and others, or, of the same wood in more mature condition, but by no means ripe, as in tender roses (Fig. 1169), and Azalea indica. The cuttings of plants like Euphorbia pulcherrima, erica, epacris, are used in the soft growing state, if a well-built propagating-house is obtainable; but in an ordinary house, a part of which is used for other purposes, the older and better ripened wood will be more successful.

It is generally true that cuttings of hardened wood will always root, although they require more time and may not make the best plants, but it is not true that cuttings of the soft wood will always root. In many cases, as in the rose, they succumb before they callus, much less produce roots. In plants of rapid growth and good vitality, the proper condition of the soft growing wood for cuttings can be determined by its readiness to snap, not bend, when bent back: the hardened wood is in the right state as long as it continues to grow.

It is generally true that cuttings of hardened wood will always root, although they require more time and may not make the best plants, but it is not true that cuttings of the soft wood will always root. In many cases, as in the rose, they succumb before they callus, much less produce roots. In plants of rapid growth and good vitality, the proper condition of the soft growing wood for cuttings can be determined by its readiness to snap, not bend, when bent back: the hardened wood is in the right state as long as it continues to grow.

The wood for soft cuttings should be fresh, and precautions should be taken to prevent wilting during making and planting: if the weather is hot, sprinkle the floor and bench of the workroom: if they are delicate and exposed for an hour or more, lay them between folds of moistened paper. The average length of these cuttings is from 1 to 3 inches, but they can be made longer or shorter; much depends upon the nature of the plant. The best growers prefer short cuttings; the advantage of a long piece to begin with is more than offset by greater danger of wilting and consequent retrogression. It is not necessary to cut to a bud, i. e., at the node, in the more easily handled plants except in some herbaceous tuberous- rooted plants, like dahlia (see Fig. 1170), and Salvia patens, in which a crown must be formed to insure future growth. Make the cut where it will give the proper length. A part of the leaves should be removed, always enough to secure a clean stem for planting, and as many more as are needed to prevent disastrous wilting: this factor varies greatly. In a hardwood cutting of lemon verbena all leaves are taken off, in zonale geraniums from the open ground few if any are left, in coleus and verbena about one half are removed, while in Olea fragrans. Daphne odora, and heath, only enough for planting. Use a sharp knife; but scissors are handy for trimming and sometimes for making cuttings of those small-wooded plants which root easily.

The wood for soft cuttings should be fresh, and precautions should be taken to prevent wilting during making and planting: if the weather is hot, sprinkle the floor and bench of the workroom: if they are delicate and exposed for an hour or more, lay them between folds of moistened paper. The average length of these cuttings is from 1 to 3 inches, but they can be made longer or shorter; much depends upon the nature of the plant. The best growers prefer short cuttings; the advantage of a long piece to begin with is more than offset by greater danger of wilting and consequent retrogression. It is not necessary to cut to a bud, i. e., at the node, in the more easily handled plants except in some herbaceous tuberous- rooted plants, like dahlia (see Fig. 1170), and Salvia patens, in which a crown must be formed to insure future growth. Make the cut where it will give the proper length. A part of the leaves should be removed, always enough to secure a clean stem for planting, and as many more as are needed to prevent disastrous wilting: this factor varies greatly. In a hardwood cutting of lemon verbena all leaves are taken off, in zonale geraniums from the open ground few if any are left, in coleus and verbena about one half are removed, while in Olea fragrans. Daphne odora, and heath, only enough for planting. Use a sharp knife; but scissors are handy for trimming and sometimes for making cuttings of those small-wooded plants which root easily.

The cuttings of plants with milky juice should be washed before planting. Sometimes the lower ends are allowed to dry for several hours, the tops being protected against wilting. Large and succulent cuttings, e. g.. of pineapple, cotyledon and cactus, should be dried before planting by letting them lie on the surface of the propagating-bed for several days, or they may be planted in dry sand at first. Under these conditions a callus forms which tends to prevent decay; but the wood must not shrivel.

The cuttings of plants with milky juice should be washed before planting. Sometimes the lower ends are allowed to dry for several hours, the tops being protected against wilting. Large and succulent cuttings, e. g.. of pineapple, cotyledon and cactus, should be dried before planting by letting them lie on the surface of the propagating-bed for several days, or they may be planted in dry sand at first. Under these conditions a callus forms which tends to prevent decay; but the wood must not shrivel.

Peter Henderson has introduced a method which is likely to increase the percentage of rooted plants, and which is desirable in slow-growing varieties, like the tricolor geraniums. He advises that the cutting should be partly severed and allowed to hang to the parent plant for a few days; this results in a partial callus or even roots, before the cutting is entirely removed.

Peter Henderson has introduced a method which is likely to increase the percentage of rooted plants, and which is desirable in slow-growing varieties, like the tricolor geraniums. He advises that the cutting should be partly severed and allowed to hang to the parent plant for a few days; this results in a partial callus or even roots, before the cutting is entirely removed.

In planting cuttings, use a dibble or open a V-shaped trench. Never thrust the cutting directly into the soil. Plant deep enough to hold the cutting upright and no deeper (as in Fig. 1171), making due allowance for the sand settling; the distance apart should be just enough to prevent them from pressing against each other. It must be remembered that they stay in the bed only until rooted. As soon as growth begins, they are potted off. When the cuttings are inserted, the sand should be firmly pressed about them, and they should be watered with a syringe or with a fine rose; the forcible application of water compacts the sand, thus excluding air, and prevents undue wilting.

In planting cuttings, use a dibble or open a V-shaped trench. Never thrust the cutting directly into the soil. Plant deep enough to hold the cutting upright and no deeper (as in Fig. 1171), making due allowance for the sand settling; the distance apart should be just enough to prevent them from pressing against each other. It must be remembered that they stay in the bed only until rooted. As soon as growth begins, they are potted off. When the cuttings are inserted, the sand should be firmly pressed about them, and they should be watered with a syringe or with a fine rose; the forcible application of water compacts the sand, thus excluding air, and prevents undue wilting.

Give shade immediately, using lath shutters outside, cloth screens or papers placed directly on the cuttings within, and attend to this very carefully for the first few days. Lift the shades early in the afternoon, and put them on late in the morning, but keep them on during the middle of the day, thus gradually accustoming them to full light.

Give shade immediately, using lath shutters outside, cloth screens or papers placed directly on the cuttings within, and attend to this very carefully for the first few days. Lift the shades early in the afternoon, and put them on late in the morning, but keep them on during the middle of the day, thus gradually accustoming them to full light.

Cuttings should never suffer from dryness. The sand should always be kept moist to the verge of wetness. Ventilation should be given on bright days, but all exposure to draft avoided. A good temperature for propagating is from 60° to 65° F.; increasing these figures for tropical plants and reducing them for more hardy kinds. It is debatable whether bottom heat and confined air are advisable for outlines of growing wood. The older gardeners employed both, but now neither is commonly used, except for tropical plants, like croton, or when a constant succession of crops of cuttings is required. There is no doubt that with this aid cuttings will root more quickly, but more skill and care are required, neglect bringing on fungous disease, which results in unhealthy plants or total loss. If bottom heat is used, the average temperature of the bed should be 10° or so above that of the air, but less will suffice. Indeed, in beds made as described above, in good weather the sand is enough warmer than the greenhouse atmosphere to answer every purpose. If a confined air is wanted, ventilation and shading must be carefully looked after, and precautions taken against the accumulation of condensed moisture within the bell-glass or frame.

Cuttings should never suffer from dryness. The sand should always be kept moist to the verge of wetness. Ventilation should be given on bright days, but all exposure to draft avoided. A good temperature for propagating is from 60° to 65° F.; increasing these figures for tropical plants and reducing them for more hardy kinds. It is debatable whether bottom heat and confined air are advisable for outlines of growing wood. The older gardeners employed both, but now neither is commonly used, except for tropical plants, like croton, or when a constant succession of crops of cuttings is required. There is no doubt that with this aid cuttings will root more quickly, but more skill and care are required, neglect bringing on fungous disease, which results in unhealthy plants or total loss. If bottom heat is used, the average temperature of the bed should be 10° or so above that of the air, but less will suffice. Indeed, in beds made as described above, in good weather the sand is enough warmer than the greenhouse atmosphere to answer every purpose. If a confined air is wanted, ventilation and shading must be carefully looked after, and precautions taken against the accumulation of condensed moisture within the bell-glass or frame.

Although it is tender plants, in the main, that are propagated by cuttings of growing wood, the above methods can be practised advantageously with some hardy plants. The wood, which is invariably more successful if hardened, is obtained either from plants forced for this purpose, e. g., spirea, Deutzia gracilis, or it is gathered in June and July out-of-doors, e.g., lilac, hydrangea. They should be potted off in 2- or 3-inch pots, in a rather sandy soil, when the roots are from ¼to½ inch long. It is sometimes good economy to box them, i.e., plant them a few inches apart in flats, when not immediately required.

Although it is tender plants, in the main, that are propagated by cuttings of growing wood, the above methods can be practised advantageously with some hardy plants. The wood, which is invariably more successful if hardened, is obtained either from plants forced for this purpose, e. g., spirea, Deutzia gracilis, or it is gathered in June and July out-of-doors, e.g., lilac, hydrangea. They should be potted off in 2- or 3-inch pots, in a rather sandy soil, when the roots are from ¼to½ inch long. It is sometimes good economy to box them, i.e., plant them a few inches apart in flats, when not immediately required.

Some hardy perennials, like Phlox subulata, Campanula carpatica, Gentiana acaulis and the hardy candytuft, can also be easily increased in this way. Make the cuttings 2 to 3 inches long and plant in flats or pots in sand or a sandy soil in October, - November or December, before any hard frost. Keep in a coolhouse and pot off when rooted. They make nice plants for planting out the following spring. Plants of this same nature can also be propagated in the open air in autumn. Make the cutting longer, 6 inches when possible, and do the work earlier, in September or in August in some cases.

Some hardy perennials, like Phlox subulata, Campanula carpatica, Gentiana acaulis and the hardy candytuft, can also be easily increased in this way. Make the cuttings 2 to 3 inches long and plant in flats or pots in sand or a sandy soil in October, - November or December, before any hard frost. Keep in a coolhouse and pot off when rooted. They make nice plants for planting out the following spring. Plants of this same nature can also be propagated in the open air in autumn. Make the cutting longer, 6 inches when possible, and do the work earlier, in September or in August in some cases.

Cutting of ripened or dormant wood. Figs. 1172-1174.

Cutting of ripened or dormant wood.

 

Many plants grow readily from twigs of the year's growth taken in fall or winter or very early spring. The "soft-wooded" plants usually propagate most readily by this means. These cuttings of mature wood may be either long or short.

Many plants grow readily from twigs of the year's growth taken in fall or winter or very early spring. The "soft-wooded" plants usually propagate most readily by this means. These cuttings of mature wood may be either long or short.

  Long cuttings of ripened wood in open air.—This method is used to propagate many hardy trees and shrubs, e.g., willows, currants, grapes, forsythia. Wood of the current year's growth is gathered in autumn or early winter, before severe frost, and either stored in a cool cellar, covering with moss or fresh earth to prevent drying, or immediately made into cuttings. These cuttings are usually 6 inches or more long and should contain at least two buds. It is not necessary to cut to a bud at the base, but the upper cut should be just above one. Figs. 1172,1173. They should be tied in bundles with tarred rope, taking care to have them lie "heads and tails" to facilitate planting, and with the butts on the same level, to promote callusing. They should then be buried in well-drained soil, with the butts down and protected against frost. In early spring they should be firmly planted in V-shaped trenches in well prepared soil: set an inch or so apart, with the rows 1 or ly? ft. apart. The upper bud should be just at the surface; to prevent suckers the lower buds may be removed. In autumn they should be dug, graded and heeled-in for winter. Some varieties wul require a second or third year's growth in the nursery; others are ready for permanent planting, as willows and poplars, which of ten grow 6 feet the first year. This is one of the very cheapest ways of propagating, and will pa)' when only 25 per cent root. This method is generally used with deciduous-leaved plants, but some conifers, e.g., Siberian arbor- vitse, will strike. Remove enough twigs to get a clean stem for planting, and allow 2 or 3 inches of top above ground.

Long cuttings of ripened wood in open air.—This method is used to propagate many hardy trees and shrubs, e.g., willows, currants, grapes, forsythia. Wood of the current year's growth is gathered in autumn or early winter, before severe frost, and either stored in a cool cellar, covering with moss or fresh earth to prevent drying, or immediately made into cuttings. These cuttings are usually 6 inches or more long and should contain at least two buds. It is not necessary to cut to a bud at the base, but the upper cut should be just above one. Figs. 1172,1173. They should be tied in bundles with tarred rope, taking care to have them lie "heads and tails" to facilitate planting, and with the butts on the same level, to promote callusing. They should then be buried in well-drained soil, with the butts down and protected against frost. In early spring they should be firmly planted in V-shaped trenches in well prepared soil: set an inch or so apart, with the rows 1 or ly? ft. apart. The upper bud should be just at the surface; to prevent suckers the lower buds may be removed. In autumn they should be dug, graded and heeled-in for winter. Some varieties wul require a second or third year's growth in the nursery; others are ready for permanent planting, as willows and poplars, which of ten grow 6 feet the first year. This is one of the very cheapest ways of propagating, and will pa)' when only 25 per cent root. This method is generally used with deciduous-leaved plants, but some conifers, e.g., Siberian arbor- vitse, will strike. Remove enough twigs to get a clean stem for planting, and allow 2 or 3 inches of top above ground.

The excrescences, knots or knaurs, which are found on the trunks and the main limbs of olive trees, are sometimes used as cuttings for propagation.

The excrescences, knots or knaurs, which are found on the trunks and the main limbs of olive trees, are sometimes used as cuttings for propagation.

Short cuttings of ripened wood. (Fig. 1174.) Cuttings of this class are used under glass with tender or half-hardy species, and sometimes with new introductions, in cases in which the grower is short of stock, and when the plant is delicate and small. The wood should be gathered before severe frost and the cuttings made and planted directly in October and November. Make them from 2 to 4 inches long (sometimes a single eye only is used), and plant with a dibble, in pure sand in pots, pans or flats (boxes about 16 inches square and 3 inches deep). If a layer of potting soil is placed under the sand, the young plants have something to feed on and do not need to be potted so soon after rooting; if this is done, drainage should be given. It is important to keep them cool until a callus is formed or roots produced. If the buds start into growth before this, the cuttings become exhausted and are likely to die. After rooting,—the time required varies from one to six months—they may either be potted or the strong-growing sorts be planted out in well-prepared beds in May or June, where they are likely to make a satisfactory growth. The weaker kinds may remain a year in pots or flats, be wintered in a pit, and planted out the next spring. Some greenhouse plants, e.g., camellia, laurestinus, tender grapes,

Short cuttings of ripened wood. (Fig. 1174.) Cuttings of this class are used under glass with tender or half-hardy species, and sometimes with new introductions, in cases in which the grower is short of stock, and when the plant is delicate and small. The wood should be gathered before severe frost and the cuttings made and planted directly in October and November. Make them from 2 to 4 inches long (sometimes a single eye only is used), and plant with a dibble, in pure sand in pots, pans or flats (boxes about 16 inches square and 3 inches deep). If a layer of potting soil is placed under the sand, the young plants have something to feed on and do not need to be potted so soon after rooting; if this is done, drainage should be given. It is important to keep them cool until a callus is formed or roots produced. If the buds start into growth before this, the cuttings become exhausted and are likely to die. After rooting,—the time required varies from one to six months—they may either be potted or the strong-growing sorts be planted out in well-prepared beds in May or June, where they are likely to make a satisfactory growth. The weaker kinds may remain a year in pots or flats, be wintered in a pit, and planted out the next spring. Some greenhouse plants, e.g., camellia, laurestinus, tender grapes,

Over the stems in the center are placed eight to ten thicknesses of well-saturated newspapers, after which cleats are nailed in place. This will prevent the flowers from becoming disarranged in shipping. When different grades of roses are to be packed in the same box, the specials are placed in first unless shipment has a long distance to travel, when two or three rows of the cheap, short grades should go next the end of the box because of danger of injury to the flowers. Each grade is separated from the next by sheets of tissue paper and the different grades are filled in until the short lengths complete the box. It should be a general rule to pack white flowers in the top of the box. Every box should contain a statement of the contents for the information of the recipient. No icing is usually needed in winter, but in warm weather the foliage of roses may be sprinkled with water or chipped ice. Carnations are cooled by lumps of ice wrapped in wet newspapers and placed between the cleats of the boxes. Violets are preserved by wrapping the stems in soft tissue paper and dipping this in cool water. Sweet pea stems are wrapped in wet cotton wool, great care is being taken to prevent wetting the blooms.

Over the stems in the center are placed eight to ten thicknesses of well-saturated newspapers, after which cleats are nailed in place. This will prevent the flowers from becoming disarranged in shipping. When different grades of roses are to be packed in the same box, the specials are placed in first unless shipment has a long distance to travel, when two or three rows of the cheap, short grades should go next the end of the box because of danger of injury to the flowers. Each grade is separated from the next by sheets of tissue paper and the different grades are filled in until the short lengths complete the box. It should be a general rule to pack white flowers in the top of the box. Every box should contain a statement of the contents for the information of the recipient. No icing is usually needed in winter, but in warm weather the foliage of roses may be sprinkled with water or chipped ice. Carnations are cooled by lumps of ice wrapped in wet newspapers and placed between the cleats of the boxes. Violets are preserved by wrapping the stems in soft tissue paper and dipping this in cool water. Sweet pea stems are wrapped in wet cotton wool, great care is being taken to prevent wetting the blooms.

The changing demands.

The changing demands.

The uses to which cut-flowers are put have changed. Forty years ago the taste was for formal designs. The flowers were picked with short stems, and in the case of carnations only the open buds were cut, while the remaining buds on the stem were allowed to develop. These flowers were wired to wooden sticks for basket work or to broom-corn straws for bouquets. The details for making the formal pieces of that time will be found in Henderson's "Practical Floriculture." That the florists of that day enjoyed a good trade is seen in the fact that on New Year's Day, 1867, one New York firm sold $6,000 worth of flowers, and it was estimated that the total sales in the city amounted to $50,000. The same authority estimates the annual sales of flowers in New York at $400,000 and in Boston $200,000. Probably the sales of the whole country did not exceed $1,000,000. Often $200 or $300 were spent for flowers for a reception, and the spending of $1,500 for a similar purpose, as well as a $6,000 church decoration, were then the highest achievements of the profession.

The uses to which cut-flowers are put have changed. Forty years ago the taste was for formal designs. The flowers were picked with short stems, and in the case of carnations only the open buds were cut, while the remaining buds on the stem were allowed to develop. These flowers were wired to wooden sticks for basket work or to broom-corn straws for bouquets. The details for making the formal pieces of that time will be found in Henderson's "Practical Floriculture." That the florists of that day enjoyed a good trade is seen in the fact that on New Year's Day, 1867, one New York firm sold $6,000 worth of flowers, and it was estimated that the total sales in the city amounted to $50,000. The same authority estimates the annual sales of flowers in New York at $400,000 and in Boston $200,000. Probably the sales of the whole country did not exceed $1,000,000. Often $200 or $300 were spent for flowers for a reception, and the spending of $1,500 for a similar purpose, as well as a $6,000 church decoration, were then the highest achievements of the profession.

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==Gallery==

==Gallery==