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| − | Fungi are plants. They differ from other plants chiefly in their lack of chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of green plants, and in the character of the substance of which their cell-walls are composed. This is sometimes spoken of as fungous cellulose, and has characters both of the cellulose of other plants and the chitin of insects. There are thousands of species of fungi, varying greatly in form and structure. Some forms are more or less familiar to everyone; for example, mushrooms, or toadstools, molds, mildews smuts and rusts. Other groups of plants often included under the term fungi are the slime-molds or myxomycetes and bacteria. While they have certain characters in common with fungi, they are sufficiently distinct to be considered separately.
| + | | latin_name = ''Fungus'' |
| − | | + | | common_names = mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc. |
| − | The fungus plant consists of a vegetative feeding portion, the mycelium, which, in a way, corresponds to the roots of higher plants, and the fruiting structure, the sporophore. The latter bears the reproductive bodies, the spores, which, while much simpler in structure, function in the same way as do the seeds of higher plants (Fig. 1607). The sporophore is the part most often observed by the layman. The mushroom or toadstool, the puffball, the smut boil on corn, the white powdery mildew on the grape or rose, or the blue mold on stale bread or cheese, are almost entirely the sporophores and spore masses. The mycelium is usually buried in the substratum from which the food is derived and is thus not often observed. In fact it is often too minute and colorless to be seen with the naked eye. It may be observed as a white branching weft in the dung of mushroom beds or in the leaf-mold in the forest. This form is commonly spoken of as spawn. It may also be seen as a white weft-like growth between the bark and wood of rotting logs or dead trees, or as brown leathery sheets in the cracks of rotting logs. It sometimes appears as brown or black shreds or strands under the bark of dying trees. This form of mycelium strand or rhizomorph is characteristic of the often very destructive mushroom parasite of trees, Armillaria mellea. The spores of fungi are minute microscopic bodies cut off from the sporophores for the purpose of reproducing the plant. They are usually one- or two-celled, though often many-celled (Fig. 1608). They are often colorless, though they may be variously tinted or colored, greenish, brown, black, and so on. When placed in sufficient moisture, and given the proper temperature, they usually will germinate quickly, either sending out a sprout-like germ-tube (Fig. 1609, b) which on finding sufficient nourishment grows into mycelium, or the protoplasmic contents of the spore-cell may escape through an opening formed in the cell-wall,as one or more actively swimming and naked protoplasmic masses, called swarm - spores (Fig. 1609, a). These swarm- spores swim about in the water for a time, (usually less than an hour),(Fig. 1609, a').
| + | | growth_habit = ? <!--- tree, shrub, herbaceous, vine, etc --> |
| − | | + | | high = ? <!--- 1m (3 ft) --> |
| − | This latter is the method of germination of the potato- blight fungus, Phytophthora infestans.—A fungus often produces two kinds of spores, the vegetative spores, conidia (Fig. 1608. j), produced usually in great numbers and repeatedly during the season for the purpose of multiplying the form, and the sexual, or resting- spores (Fig. 1608, a, b, c, d, K), adapted primarily to carry the fungus through periods unfavorable to growth, as dry seasons, winter and the like. Either form may. however, function as the other. They are disseminated by wind, water, insects, or by man himself.
| + | | wide = <!--- 65cm (25 inches) --> |
| − | | + | | origin = ? <!--- Mexico, S America, S Europe, garden, etc --> |
| − | Because of their lack of chlorophyll, fungi cannot assimilate their carbon directly from the carbon dioxide of the air as can the green plants. They must make use of the food substances already manufactured or elaborated by other plants or animals. With respect to the nature of the substratum from which fungi obtain their food-supply, they are of two general types, saprophytes, those that can feed and develop on non-living organic substances (chiefly dead parts of plants and animals); and parasites, those that may grow upon and take food from living organisms. A true or obligate saprophyte can feed only upon nonliving organic substances. There are great numbers of such species, attacking dead and fallen trees, stems and leaves of plants or the dead bodies of animals, infesting dung and other debris, breaking up the complex organic substances into simpler form, and deriving therefrom the food and energy for their development. Most mushrooms, toadstools, molds and the like, are obligate saprophytes, playing the role of disintegrators in the ever-changing cycle of nature. An obligate parasite, on the other hand is, in nature at least, compelled to derive its nutrition through direct attack on the living tissues of other plants or of animals. Of such fungi, the rust- and smut- producing parasites, the leaf-curl fungus of the peach, and the potato-blight organism are good examples. Between these extremes are to be found very many forms which, during a part of their active development, live as parasites, and during the remainder as saprophytes. The apple-scab fungus is a good example. It passes the summer as an active parasite upon the leaves and fruit of the apple, but in the autumn and spring continues its growth and development in the fallen leaves, producing the sexually formed ascospores which in the spring infect the next crop. Other forms, which usually lead a saprophytic existence on the dead and fallen parts of plants, may, under special conditions, take on a parasitic habit. A good example is a common saprophyte, a species of Botrytis, common in greenhouses. When there is an excess of moisture or the plants are in any way weakened, this fungus finds it easy to pass from a saprophytic life on the dead leaves, to that of active and destructive parasitism on the living leaves. It is sometimes destructive to lettuce. Fungi are in general favored by abundance of moisture. For this reason in a wet season mushrooms appear in great profusion, and epidemics of plant- disease-producing fungi often occur over wide areas, causing great losses to the agriculturist. The loss from potato- blight in New York state alone often amounts in wet seasons to over $10,000,000. Warm weather is generally favorable to fungus growth, but there are some forms, like the potato-blight fungus, which nourish only during relatively cool periods. This parasite occurs only in temperate regions, being unknown in the hot low lands of tropical and subtropical regions. The peach leaf-curl fungus is apparently favored as much by the low temperature as by the rains of a wet spring. Other forms seem to thrive best in dry climates, as for example the powdery mildew of grapes.
| + | | poisonous = <!--- indicate parts of plants which are known/thought to be poisonous --> |
| − | | + | | lifespan = <!--- perennial, annual, etc --> |
| − | While many fungi are destructive agents of the crops of the agriculturist, causing him heavy losses, most fungi are active co-laborers with him, bringing about, as has been seen, the disintegration of compost, on which the farmer depends so largely for increased crop- production. Other fungi, like the yeasts and certain molds, are necessary agents in the arts and manufactures, as for example, the use of yeast in bread-, beer- and wine-production, molds in cheese-ripening, and so on. The value of these fungi lies chiefly in their ability to produce fermentations of various sorts or to give flavors to the products. Many fungi are edible, as for example the large fruit bodies of mushrooms, puffballs and truffles. While their value as food is perhaps often overestimated, they are valuable and form no unimportant part of the food of many people, especially in Europe. They are to be regarded chiefly as delicacies. The truffles and the cultivated mushroom, Agaricus campestris, are perhaps the best known. A delicacy known to relatively few is the large smut boils occurring on Zizania latifolia. Some fungi are poisonous, as for example the deadly Amanita, the fly-agaric among mushrooms, and the ergot, a fungous parasite of rye and other grasses. Fortunately the number of poisonous species is relatively small.
| + | | exposure = ? <!--- full sun, part-sun, semi-shade, shade, indoors, bright filtered (you may list more than 1) --> |
| − | H. H. Whetzel.
| + | | water = ? <!--- frequent, regular, moderate, drought tolerant, let dry then soak --> |
| − | | + | | features = <!--- flowers, fragrance, fruit, naturalizes, invasive --> |
| − | }}
| + | | hardiness = <!--- frost sensitive, hardy, 5°C (40°F), etc --> |
| − | {{Taxobox
| + | | bloom = <!--- seasons which the plant blooms, if it is grown for its flowers --> |
| − | | color = lightblue | + | | usda_zones = ? <!--- eg. 8-11 --> |
| − | | name = Fungi | + | | sunset_zones = <!--- eg. 8, 9, 12-24, not available --> |
| − | | fossil_range = Early [[Silurian]] - Recent | + | | color = IndianRed |
| | | image = Fungi_collage.jpg | | | image = Fungi_collage.jpg |
| − | | image_width = 250px | + | | image_width = 240px <!--- leave as 240px if horizontal orientation photo, or change to 180px if vertical --> |
| | | image_caption = Clockwise from top left: ''[[Amanita muscaria]]'', a basidiomycete; ''[[Sarcoscypha coccinea]]'', an ascomycete; [[black bread mold]], a zygomycete; a chytrid; a ''[[Penicillium]]'' [[conidiophore]]. | | | image_caption = Clockwise from top left: ''[[Amanita muscaria]]'', a basidiomycete; ''[[Sarcoscypha coccinea]]'', an ascomycete; [[black bread mold]], a zygomycete; a chytrid; a ''[[Penicillium]]'' [[conidiophore]]. |
| − | | domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| + | | regnum = Fungi |
| − | | unranked_regnum = [[Opisthokont]]a
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| − | | regnum = '''Fungi''' | |
| − | | regnum_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]], 1753
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| − | | subdivision_ranks = Divisions
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| − | | subdivision =
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| − | [[Chytridiomycota]]<br/>
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| − | [[Zygomycota]]<br/>
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| − | [[Glomeromycota]]<br>
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| − | [[Ascomycota]]<br/>
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| − | [[Basidiomycota]]<br/>
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| − | [[Deuteromycota]]
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| | }} | | }} |
| − | '''Fungi''' (singular '''fungus''') are a [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] of [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[organism]]s. They are [[heterotrophic]] and digest their food externally, absorbing [[nutrient]] [[molecule]]s into their [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. [[Yeasts]], [[molds]], and [[mushrooms]] are examples of fungi. The branch of [[biology]] involving the study of fungi is known as [[mycology]].
| + | Fungi are not plants, they are in their own kingdom. They were once classified as plants however. |
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| − | Fungi often have important [[symbiotic]] relationships with other organisms. [[Mycorrhizal]] symbiosis between [[plants]] and fungi is particularly important; over 90% of all plant species engage in some kind of mycorrhizal relationship with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.<ref>{{cite web
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| − | | last = Volk
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| − | | first = Tom
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| − | | title = Tom Volk's Fungi FAQ
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| − | | url=http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/faq.html
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| − | | accessdate = 2006-09-21}}, University of Wisconsin, Department of Botany, "Even more important are the mushrooms that are associated with trees as mycorrhizae. Without this mutualistic association most trees would not survive. Killing these fungi would effectively kill your trees."</ref><ref>{{cite web
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| − | | last = Wong
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| − | | first = George
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| − | | title = Symbiosis: Mycorrhizae and Lichens
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| − | | url=http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/Lect26.htm
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| − | | accessdate = 2006-09-21}}, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Botany Department, "[Mycorrhizae occur] in practically all plants with the exception of the Brassicaceae; The Crucifer Family; Chenopodiaceae, The Goosefoot Family; Cyperaceae; The [[Cyperaceae|Sedge Family]] and in [[aquatic plant]]s. All other families form mycorrhizae. It is believed that for many plants that usually form mycorrhizae, they would be unable to survive in their natural habitat without this symbiotic relationship."</ref> Fungi are also used extensively by humans: [[yeast]]s are responsible for [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] of [[beer]] and [[bread]], and [[mushroom]] farming and gathering is a large industry in many countries.
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| − | Fungi and [[bacteria]] are the primary [[decomposers]] of [[Organic material|organic matter]] in most terrestrial [[ecosystem]]s. There are an estimated 1.5 million species of fungi with around 70,000 of them having been described.<ref>{{cite web
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| − | | url = http://tolweb.org/Fungi
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| − | | title = Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc.
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| − | | accessdate = 2007-04-06
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| − | | author = Meredith Blackwell
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| − | | coauthors = Rytas Vilgalys, and John W. Taylor
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| − | | date = [[2005-02-14]]
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| − | | language = english
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | ==Phylogeny and classification of fungi==
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| − | Fungi were originally classified as [[plant]]s, however they have since been separated as they are [[heterotroph]]s. This means they do not fix their own carbon through [[photosynthesis]], but use carbon fixed by other organisms for [[metabolism]]. Fungi are now thought to be more closely related to [[animal]]s than to plants, and are placed with animals in the [[monophyletic]] group of [[opisthokont]]s. For much of the [[Paleozoic]] Era, the fungi appear to have been aquatic. The first land fungi probably appeared in the [[Silurian]], right after the first [[Embryophyte|land plants]] appeared even though their [[fossil]]s are fragmentary. For some time after the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]], the fungi went into a fungal spike because they were the dominant life forms - nearly 100% of the available record.<ref name="eshet">Eshet, Y. ''et al.'' (1995) Fungal event and palynological record of ecological crisis and recovery across the Permian-Triassic boundary. ''Geology'', 23, 967-970.</ref> Fungi absorb their food while animals [[Ingestion|ingest]] it; also unlike animals, the cells of fungi have [[cell wall]]s. For these reasons, these organisms are placed in their own [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]], Fungi, or '''Eumycota'''.
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| − | The Fungi are a [[monophyletic]] group, meaning all varieties of fungi come from a [[Common descent|common ancestor]]. The monophyly of the fungi has been confirmed through repeated tests of [[molecular phylogenetics]]; shared ancestral traits include [[chitinous]] cell walls and heterotrophy by absorption, along with other shared characteristics.
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| − | The [[taxonomy]] of the Fungi is in a state of rapid flux at present, especially due to recent papers based on DNA comparisons, which often overturn the assumptions of the older systems of classification.<ref>See [http://www.palaeos.com/Fungi/default.htm Palaeos: Fungi] for an introduction to fungal taxonomy, including recent controversies.</ref><ref>[http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023,%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf “A Higher-Level Phylogenetic Classification of the Fungi” by David S. Hibbett,] (.pdf file) Retrieved on 8 March 2007 </ref>
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| − | There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are constant name changes at every level, from species upwards. Fungal species can also have multiple scientific names depending on its life cycle. Web sites such as [[Index Fungorum]], [[ITIS]] and [[Wikispecies:Fungi|Wikispecies]] define preferred up-to-date names (with cross-references to older synonyms), but do not always agree with each other or with names in Wikipedia in its various language variants.
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| − | ===Types of fungi===
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| − | The major divisions ([[phyla]]) of fungi are mainly classified based on their sexual [[reproduction|reproductive]] structures. Currently, five divisions are recognized:
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| | [[Image:Wn8-05-2.JPG|thumb|''[[Arbuscular mycorrhiza]]'' seen under microscope. [[Flax]] root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules.]] | | [[Image:Wn8-05-2.JPG|thumb|''[[Arbuscular mycorrhiza]]'' seen under microscope. [[Flax]] root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules.]] |
| − | [[Image:Aspergillus.jpg|thumb|right|[[Conidiophore]]s of molds of the genus | + | [[Image:Aspergillus.jpg|thumb|right|[[Conidiophore]]s of molds of the genus ''[[Aspergillus]]'', an ascomycete, seen under microscope.]] |
| − | ''[[Aspergillus]]'', an ascomycete, seen under microscope.]] | |
| − | * The [[Chytridiomycota]] are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi produce zoospores that are capable of moving on their own through liquid menstrua by simple [[flagellum|flagella]].
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| − | * The [[Zygomycota]] are known as zygomycetes and reproduce sexually with meiospores called zygospores and asexually with sporangiospores. [[Black bread mold]] (''Rhizopus stolonifer'') is a common species that belongs to this group; another is ''[[Pilobolus]]'', which shoots specialized structures through the air for several meters. Medically relevant genera include ''Mucor'', ''Rhizomucor'', and ''Rhizopus''. [[Molecular phylogenetic]] investigation has shown the zygomycota to be a [[polyphyletic]] group.
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| − | * Members of the [[Glomeromycota]] are also known as the [[arbuscular mycorrhizae|arbuscular mycorrhizal]] fungi. Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other species only reproduce asexually. This is an ancient association, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago.
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| − | * The [[Ascomycota]], commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an [[ascus]]. This division includes [[morel]]s, some [[mushroom]]s and [[truffle]]s, as well as single-celled [[yeast]]s and many species that have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, several ascomyctes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g. ''[[Neurospora crassa]]'').
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| − | * Members of the [[Basidiomycota]], commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called [[basidiospore]]s on club-like stalks
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| − | called [[basidium|basidia]]. Most common [[mushroom]]s belong to this group, as well as [[rust (fungus)]] and [[smut (fungus)|smut fungi]], which are major pathogens of grains.
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| − | Although the [[water mold]]s and [[slime mold]]s have traditionally been placed in the kingdom Fungi and those who study them are still called mycologists, they are not true fungi. Unlike true fungi, the water molds and slime molds do not have cell walls made of [[chitin]]. In the [[kingdom (biology)|5-kingdom system]], they are currently placed in the kingdom [[Protist]]a. Water moulds are descended from algae, and are placed within the phylum [[Oomycota]], within the Kingdom Protista.
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| − | ==Morphology==
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| | [[Image:DecayingPeachSmall.gif|frame|left|Mold covering a decaying peach over a period of six days. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart.]] | | [[Image:DecayingPeachSmall.gif|frame|left|Mold covering a decaying peach over a period of six days. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart.]] |
| − | Though fungi are part of the [[opisthokont]] clade, all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella.<ref>[http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/23/1/93 The Protistan Origins of Animals and Fungi] Emma T. Steenkamp, Jane Wright and Sandra L. Baldauf. Molecular Biology and Evolution 2006 23(1):93-106; doi:10.1093/molbev/msj011. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref> Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall of [[chitin]]. All fungi are made up of many thin thread-like structures called [[hypha]]e. These hyphae can be one of two types: septate, or coenocytic. Septate hyphae have "walls" between their cells, called septa, though these septa have holes that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through. Coenocytic hyphae have no such marked divisions between cells. Coenocytic hyphae are essentially multinucleate supercells. Parasitic fungi have special structures on their hyphae called haustoria, which penetrate directly into a host organism's cells, allowing nutrients to be taken by the fungus. All of a fungus's hyphae form a structure called the [[mycelium]]. In mushroom forming fungi, the mycelium is normally underground. In molds, the mycelium forms directly on the food source. The only fungi that do not form hyphae or mycleia are yeasts, which are unicellular.
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| − | Fungi, unlike animals and vascular plants, do not spend the majority of their life cycle in a [[diploid]] condition. When a spore begins to grow into a mycelium, the organism is [[haploid]]. The haploid mycelium may or may not produce haploid spores asexually. When one haploid organism encounters another, through growth of the mycelium, since fungi are not motile, the two may merge, in a process called plasmogamy. The fungi then enter a heterokaryotic, or multinucleate stage. Usually, one nucleus from one parent fungus will pair off with one nucleus from the other parent. Some fungi spend most of their life cycle in this stage. At a given time, the paired off nuclei will merge, in a process called karyogamy, producing a diploid nucleus. This will normally happen in a separate reproductive structure; in basidiomycetes and ascomycetes, the mushroom. The diploid nucleus will then undergo meiosis to produce haploid nuclei, which are then released as spores to start the cycle once again.
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| − | ==Reproduction==
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| | [[Image:DirkvdM barbed fungus.jpg|thumb|left|Fungi on a fence post near [[Orosí]], Costa Rica.]] | | [[Image:DirkvdM barbed fungus.jpg|thumb|left|Fungi on a fence post near [[Orosí]], Costa Rica.]] |
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| − | Fungi may reproduce sexually or asexually. In [[asexual reproduction]], the [[offspring]] are genetically identical to the “parent” organism (they are [[Cloning|clones]]). During [[sexual reproduction]], a mixing of [[gene|genetic material]] occurs so that the offspring exhibit traits of both parents. Many species can use both strategies at different times, while others are apparently strictly sexual or strictly asexual. Sexual reproduction has not been observed in some fungi of the [[Glomeromycota]] and [[Ascomycota]]. These are commonly referred to as Fungi imperfecti or [[Deuteromycota]].
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| − | Yeasts and other unicellular fungi can reproduce simply by [[budding]], or “pinching off” a new cell. Many multicellular species produce a variety of different asexual spores tha
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| − | t are easily dispersed and resistant to harsh environmental conditions. When the conditions are right, these spores will [[germination|germinate]] and colonize new [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]]s.
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| − | Sexual reproduction in fungi is somewhat different from that of animals or plants, and each fungal division reproduces using different strategies. Fungi that are known to reproduce sexually all have a [[haploid]] stage and a [[diploid]] stage in their life cycles. Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes also go through a [[dikaryotic]] stage, in which the [[cell nucleus|nuclei]] inherited by the two parents do not fuse right away, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see [[heterokaryosis]]).
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| − | In zygomycetes, the haploid hyphae of two compatible individuals fuse, forming a [[zygote]], which becomes a resistant [[zygospore]]. When this zygospore germinates, it quickly undergoes [[meiosis]], generating new haploid hyphae and asexual [[sporangiospore]]s. These sporangiospores may then be distributed and germinate into new genetically-identical individuals, each producing their own haploid hyphae. When the hyphae of two compatible individuals come into contact with one another, they will fuse and generate new zygospores, thus completing the cycle.
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| − | In ascomycetes, when compatible haploid hyphae fuse with one another, their nuclei do not immediately fuse. The dikaryotic hyphae form structures called [[ascus|asci]] (''sing.'' ascus), in which [[karyogamy]] (nuclear fusion) occurs. These asci are embedded in an [[ascocarp]], or fruiting body, of the fungus. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. The ascospores are disseminated and germinate to form new haploid mycelium. Asexual [[Conidium|conidia]] may be produced by the haploid mycelium. Many ascomycetes appear to have lost the ability to reproduce sexually and reproduce only via conidia.
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| − | Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of ascomycetes. Sexually compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. This leads to the production of a [[basidiocarp]].<ref>[http://www.microbiologybytes.com/introduction/myc2.html Reproduction of fungi] MicrobiologyBytes, [[2007-01-18]]. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref> The most commonly-known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take many other forms. Club-like structures known as [[basidia]] generate haploid [[basidiospores]] following karyogamy and meiosis. These basidiospores then germinate to produce new haploid mycelia.
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| − | ==Ecological role==
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| | [[Image:fungi in Borneo.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Polypores]] growing on a tree in Borneo]] | | [[Image:fungi in Borneo.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Polypores]] growing on a tree in Borneo]] |
| − | Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on [[Earth]] and play very important roles in most [[ecosystems]]. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major [[decomposers]] in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in [[biogeochemical cycles]] and in many [[food webs]].
| + | Fungi differ from plants chiefly in their lack of chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of green plants, and in the character of the substance of which their cell-walls are composed. This is sometimes spoken of as fungous cellulose, and has characters both of the cellulose of other plants and the chitin of insects. There are thousands of species of fungi, varying greatly in form and structure. Some forms are more or less familiar to everyone; for example, mushrooms, or toadstools, molds, mildews smuts and rusts. Other groups of plants often included under the term fungi are the slime-molds or myxomycetes and bacteria. While they have certain characters in common with fungi, they are sufficiently distinct to be considered separately. |
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| − | Many fungi are important as partners in [[symbiotic]] relationships with other organisms, as [[mutualists]], [[parasites]], or [[commensalists]], as well as in symbiotic relationships that do not fall neatly into any of these categories. One of the most important of these relationships are various types of [[mycorrhiza]], which is a kind of mutualistic relationship between fungi and plants, in which the plant's roots are closely associated with fungal hyphae and other structures. The plant donates to the fungus sugars and other carbohydrates that it manufactures from photosynthesis, while the fungus donates water and mineral nutrients that the hyphal network is able to find much more efficiently than the plant roots alone can, particularly [[phosphorus]]. The fungi also protect against diseases and pathogens and provide other benefits to the plant. Recently, plants have been found to use mycorrhizas to deliver carbohydrates and other nutrients to other plants in the same community and in some cases can make plant species that would normally exclude each other able to coexist in the same plant community. Such mycor
| + | The fungus consists of a vegetative feeding portion, the mycelium, which, in a way, corresponds to the roots of higher plants, and the fruiting structure, the sporophore. The latter bears the reproductive bodies, the spores, which, while much simpler in structure, function in the same way as do the seeds of higher plants (Fig. 1607). The sporophore is the part most often observed by the layman. The mushroom or toadstool, the puffball, the smut boil on corn, the white powdery mildew on the grape or rose, or the blue mold on stale bread or cheese, are almost entirely the sporophores and spore masses. The mycelium is usually buried in the substratum from which the food is derived and is thus not often observed. In fact it is often too minute and colorless to be seen with the naked eye. It may be observed as a white branching weft in the dung of mushroom beds or in the leaf-mold in the forest. This form is commonly spoken of as spawn. It may also be seen as a white weft-like growth between the bark and wood of rotting logs or dead trees, or as brown leathery sheets in the cracks of rotting logs. It sometimes appears as brown or black shreds or strands under the bark of dying trees. This form of mycelium strand or rhizomorph is characteristic of the often very destructive mushroom parasite of trees, Armillaria mellea. The spores of fungi are minute microscopic bodies cut off from the sporophores for the purpose of reproducing the plant. They are usually one- or two-celled, though often many-celled (Fig. 1608). They are often colorless, though they may be variously tinted or colored, greenish, brown, black, and so on. When placed in sufficient moisture, and given the proper temperature, they usually will germinate quickly, either sending out a sprout-like germ-tube (Fig. 1609, b) which on finding sufficient nourishment grows into mycelium, or the protoplasmic contents of the spore-cell may escape through an opening formed in the cell-wall,as one or more actively swimming and naked protoplasmic masses, called swarm - spores (Fig. 1609, a). These swarm- spores swim about in the water for a time, (usually less than an hour),(Fig. 1609, a'). |
| − | rhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". Over 90% of the plant species on Earth are dependent on mycorrhizae of one type or another in order to survive, and it is hypothesized that the presence of terrestrial fungi may have been necessary in order for the first plants to colonize land. Research in 2005 showed that mycorrhizal fungi facilitate significant nitrogen transfer to their plant hosts.<ref>[http://southwestfarmpress.com/news/6-10-05-nitrogen-transfer-beneficial-fungi/ Knowledge of nitrogen transfer between plants and beneficial fungi expands] southwestfarmpress.com. [[2005-06-10]] Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref>
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| − | [[Lichens]] are formed by a symbiotic relationship between [[algae]] or [[cyanobacteria]] (referred to in lichens as "photobionts") and fungi (mostly ascomycetes of various kinds and a few basidiomycetes), in which individual photobiont cells are embedded in a complex of fungal tissue. As in [[mycorrhizas]], the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates while the fungus provides minerals and water. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism.
| + | This latter is the method of germination of the potato- blight fungus, Phytophthora infestans.—A fungus often produces two kinds of spores, the vegetative spores, conidia (Fig. 1608. j), produced usually in great numbers and repeatedly during the season for the purpose of multiplying the form, and the sexual, or resting- spores (Fig. 1608, a, b, c, d, K), adapted primarily to carry the fungus through periods unfavorable to growth, as dry seasons, winter and the like. Either form may. however, function as the other. They are disseminated by wind, water, insects, or by man himself. |
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| − | Certain insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with various types of fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate various fungi in the [[Agaricales]] as their primary food source, while [[ambrosia beetles]] cultivate various kinds of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest.<ref>[http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/Lect24.htm Fungi and Insect Symbiosis] www.botany.hawaii.edu. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref>
| + | Because of their lack of chlorophyll, fungi cannot assimilate their carbon directly from the carbon dioxide of the air as can the green plants. They must make use of the food substances already manufactured or elaborated by other plants or animals. With respect to the nature of the substratum from which fungi obtain their food-supply, they are of two general types, saprophytes, those that can feed and develop on non-living organic substances (chiefly dead parts of plants and animals); and parasites, those that may grow upon and take food from living organisms. A true or obligate saprophyte can feed only upon nonliving organic substances. There are great numbers of such species, attacking dead and fallen trees, stems and leaves of plants or the dead bodies of animals, infesting dung and other debris, breaking up the complex organic substances into simpler form, and deriving therefrom the food and energy for their development. Most mushrooms, toadstools, molds and the like, are obligate saprophytes, playing the role of disintegrators in the ever-changing cycle of nature. An obligate parasite, on the other hand is, in nature at least, compelled to derive its nutrition through direct attack on the living tissues of other plants or of animals. Of such fungi, the rust- and smut- producing parasites, the leaf-curl fungus of the peach, and the potato-blight organism are good examples. Between these extremes are to be found very many forms which, during a part of their active development, live as parasites, and during the remainder as saprophytes. The apple-scab fungus is a good example. It passes the summer as an active parasite upon the leaves and fruit of the apple, but in the autumn and spring continues its growth and development in the fallen leaves, producing the sexually formed ascospores which in the spring infect the next crop. Other forms, which usually lead a saprophytic existence on the dead and fallen parts of plants, may, under special conditions, take on a parasitic habit. A good example is a common saprophyte, a species of Botrytis, common in greenhouses. When there is an excess of moisture or the plants are in any way weakened, this fungus finds it easy to pass from a saprophytic life on the dead leaves, to that of active and destructive parasitism on the living leaves. It is sometimes destructive to lettuce. Fungi are in general favored by abundance of moisture. For this reason in a wet season mushrooms appear in great profusion, and epidemics of plant- disease-producing fungi often occur over wide areas, causing great losses to the agriculturist. The loss from potato- blight in New York state alone often amounts in wet seasons to over $10,000,000. Warm weather is generally favorable to fungus growth, but there are some forms, like the potato-blight fungus, which nourish only during relatively cool periods. This parasite occurs only in temperate regions, being unknown in the hot low lands of tropical and subtropical regions. The peach leaf-curl fungus is apparently favored as much by the low temperature as by the rains of a wet spring. Other forms seem to thrive best in dry climates, as for example the powdery mildew of grapes. |
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| − | Some fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including [[humans]]), and even other fungi. Pathogenic fungi are responsible for numerous [[disease]]s, such as [[athlete’s foot]] and [[ringworm]] in humans and [[Dutch elm disease]] in plants. Some fungi are [[predators]] of [[nematodes]], which they capture using an array of devices such as constricting rings or adhesive nets.<ref>[http://www.uoguelph.ca/~gbarron/MISC2003/illustra.htm ILLUSTRATIONS for Predatory Fungi, wood Decay and the Carbon Cycle] www.uoguelph.ca. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref>
| + | While many fungi are destructive agents of the crops of the agriculturist, causing him heavy losses, most fungi are active co-laborers with him, bringing about, as has been seen, the disintegration of compost, on which the farmer depends so largely for increased crop- production. Other fungi, like the yeasts and certain molds, are necessary agents in the arts and manufactures, as for example, the use of yeast in bread-, beer- and wine-production, molds in cheese-ripening, and so on. The value of these fungi lies chiefly in their ability to produce fermentations of various sorts or to give flavors to the products. Many fungi are edible, as for example the large fruit bodies of mushrooms, puffballs and truffles. While their value as food is perhaps often overestimated, they are valuable and form no unimportant part of the food of many people, especially in Europe. They are to be regarded chiefly as delicacies. The truffles and the cultivated mushroom, Agaricus campestris, are perhaps the best known. A delicacy known to relatively few is the large smut boils occurring on Zizania latifolia. Some fungi are poisonous, as for example the deadly Amanita, the fly-agaric among mushrooms, and the ergot, a fungous parasite of rye and other grasses. Fortunately the number of poisonous species is relatively small. |
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| − | ==Human uses of fungi== | + | ==Cultivation== |
| − | [[Image:S cerevisiae under DIC microscopy.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Sacharomyces cerevisiae cells in DIC microscopy.]]
| + | {{edit-cult}}<!--- Type cultivation info below this line, then delete this entire line --> |
| − | The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as [[ethnomycology]].
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| − | Fungi have a long history of use by humans. Many types of [[mushroom]]s and other fungi are eaten, including [[Agaricus bisporus|button mushrooms]], [[shiitake mushroom]]s, and [[oyster mushroom]]s.
| + | ===Propagation=== |
| | + | {{edit-prop}}<!--- Type propagation info below this line, then delete this entire line --> |
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| − | Many [[species]] of mushrooms are [[poison]]ous and are responsible for numerous cases of [[sickness]] and [[death]] every year. In the [[US]] the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning is the [[Amanita phalloides]] or death cap mushroom.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7251327 On the Trail of the Death Cap Mushroom] Richard Harris, www.npr.org, [[2007-02-08]]. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref>
| + | ===Pests and diseases=== |
| | + | {{edit-pests}}<!--- Type pest/disease info below this line, then delete this entire line --> |
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| − | A type of single-celled [[yeast]] fungus called [[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]] yeast is used in baking [[bread]].<ref>[http://www.dailylush.com/archives/yeast.html It eats sugar and poops alcohol. What’s not to like?] Max Sparber, Daily Lush, [[2005-08-06]]. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref> Yeast is also used to create [[alcoholic beverage]]s through [[fermentation]]. Mycelial fungus is used to make [[Shoyu]] ([[soy sauce]]) and [[tempeh]]. Fungi are also used to produce industrial chemicals like [[lactic acid]], [[antibiotics]] and even to make stonewashed [[jeans]]. Some types of fungi are ingested for their [[psychedelic drug|psychedelic]] properties, both [[recreational drug|recreationally]] and religiously (see main article, ''[[Psychedelic mushroom]]'').
| + | ==Divisions== |
| − | | + | [[Chytridiomycota]]<br/> |
| − | ===Edible and poisonous fungi=== | + | [[Zygomycota]]<br/> |
| − | [[Image:Truffe coupée.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Black Périgord Truffle (''[[Tuber melanosporum]]''), cut in half.]]
| + | [[Glomeromycota]]<br> |
| − | [[Image:Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Stilton cheese]] veined with ''[[Penicillium roqueforti]]''.]]
| + | [[Ascomycota]]<br/> |
| − | [[Image:Amanita phalloid | + | [[Basidiomycota]]<br/> |
| − | es 1.JPG|thumb|200px|right|"Death cap", ''[[Amanita phalloides]]''.]]
| + | [[Deuteromycota]] |
| − | Some of the most well-known types of fungi are the [[Edible mushroom|edible]] and [[Mushroom poisoning|poisonous mushrooms]]. Many species are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Button mushrooms (''[[Agaricus bisporus]]'') are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. [[Agaricus bisporus|Portobello mushrooms]] are the same species, but are allowed to grow to a much larger size. Other commercially-grown mushrooms that have gained in popularity in the West and are often available fresh in grocery stores include [[straw mushroom]]s (''Volvariella volvacea''), [[oyster mushroom]]s (''Pleurotus ostreatus''), [[shiitake]]s (''Lentinula edodes''), and [[enokitake]] (''Flammulina'' spp.).
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| − | There are many more mushroom species that are [[Mushroom hunting|harvested from the wild]] for personal consumption or commercial sale. [[Lactarius deliciosus|Milk mushrooms]], [[morel]]s, [[chanterelle]]s, [[Tuber (genus)|truffles]], [[Craterellus|black trumpets]], and [[porcini]] mushrooms (also known as king boletes) all command a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes.
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| − | It is also a common practice to permit the growth of specific species of [[mold]] in certain types of cheeses that give them their unique flavor. This mold is non-toxic and is safe for human consumption. This accounts for the [[blue cheese|blue]] colour in cheeses such as [[Stilton cheese|Stilton]] or [[Roquefort]] which is created using [[Penicillium roqueforti]] spores.<ref>[http://whatscookingamerica.net/Q-A/CheeseMold.htm Questions & Answers - Mold on Cheese] whatscookingamerica.net. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref>
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| − | Hundreds of mushroom species are toxic to humans, causing anything from upset stomachs to [[hallucination]]s to death. Some of the most deadly belong to the genus ''[[Amanita]]'', including ''[[Amanita virosa|A. virosa]]'' (the "destroying angel") and ''[[Death cap|A. phalloides]]'' (the "death cap"). Stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea usually occur within 6-24 hours after ingestion of these mushrooms, followed by a brief period of remission (usually 1-2 days). Patients often fail to present themselves for treatment at this time, assuming that they have recovered. However, within 2-4 weeks [[liver]] and [[kidney]] failure leads to death if untreated. There is no antidote for the toxins in these mushrooms, but [[kidney dialysis]] and administration of [[corticosteroids]] may help. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary (Kaminstein 2002). It is difficult to identify a "safe" mushroom without proper training and knowledge, thus it is often advised to assume that a mushroom in the wild is poisonous and leave it alone.
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| − | [[Amanita muscaria|Fly agaric]] mushrooms (''A. muscaria'') are also responsible for a large number of poisonings, but these cases rarely result in death. The most common symptoms are nausea and vomiting, drowsiness, and hallucinations. In fact, this species is used ritually and [[recreational drug use|recreationally]] for its [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic]] properties. Historically Fly agaric was used by [[Celt]]ic [[Druids]] in Northern Europe and the [[Koryaks|Koryak people]] of north-eastern [[Siberia]] for religious or shamanic purposes.<ref>[http://www.treesforlife.org.uk/forest/mythfolk/flyagaric.html Mythology and Folklore of Fly Agaric] Paul Kendall, Trees for Life. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref>
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| − | ===Fungi in the biological control of pests===
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| − | Many fungi compete with other organisms, or directly infect them. Some of these fungi are considered beneficial because they can restrict, and sometimes eliminate, the populations of noxious organisms like pest insects, [[mites]], [[weed]]s, [[nematodes]] and other fungi, such as those that kill plants.<ref>[http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/jul98/fung0798.htm Setting the Stage To Screen Biocontrol Fungi] Hank Becker, July 1998. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref> There is much interest on the manipulation of these beneficial fungi for the [[biological control]] of pests. Some of these fungi can be used as [[biopesticides]], like the ones that kill insects ([[entomopathogenic fungi]]).<ref>[http://www.uvminnovations.com/graphics/microfactory.pdf WHEY-BASED FUNGAL MICROFACTORY TECHNOLOGY FOR ENHANCED BIOLOGICAL PEST MANAGEMENT USING FUNGI] Todd. S. Keiller, Technology Transfer, University of Vermont. Retrieved [[2007-04-06]].</ref> Specific examples of fungi that have been developed as bioinsecticides are ''[[Beauveria bassiana]]'', ''[[Metarhizium anisopliae]]'', [[Hirsutella]], ''[[Paecilomyces fumosoroseus]]'', and ''[[Verticillium lecanii]]''.
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| − | ==See also== | + | ==Gallery== |
| − | *[[Carnivorous fungus]]
| + | {{photo-sources}}<!-- remove this line if there are already 3 or more photos in the gallery --> |
| − | *[[Wood-decay fungus]]
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| − | *[[MycoBank]]
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| − | *[[List of fungal orders]]
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| − | ==Notes==
| + | <gallery> |
| − | <!-- ---------------------------------------------------------- | + | Image:S cerevisiae under DIC microscopy.jpg|Sacharomyces cerevisiae cells in DIC microscopy. |
| − | See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for a
| + | Image:Truffe coupée.jpg|Black Périgord Truffle (''[[Tuber melanosporum]]''), cut in half. |
| − | discussion of different citation methods and how to generate
| + | Image:Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg|[[Stilton cheese]] veined with ''[[Penicillium roqueforti]]''. |
| − | footnotes using the <ref>, </ref> and <reference /> tags
| + | Image:Amanita phalloides 1.JPG|"Death cap", ''[[Amanita phalloides]]''. |
| − | ----------------------------------------------------------- -->
| + | </gallery> |
| − | <div class="references-small">
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| − | <references />
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| − | </div> | |
| | | | |
| | ==References== | | ==References== |
| − | * Deacon JW. (2005). Fungal Biology (4th ed). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 1-4051-3066-0. | + | *[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963 |
| − | * Kaminstein D. (2002). [http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/mushroom_poisoning.jsp Mushroom poisoning]. | + | <!--- xxxxx *Flora: The Gardener's Bible, by Sean Hogan. Global Book Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0881925381 --> |
| | + | <!--- xxxxx *American Horticultural Society: A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants, by Christopher Brickell, Judith D. Zuk. 1996. ISBN 0789419432 --> |
| | + | <!--- xxxxx *Sunset National Garden Book. Sunset Books, Inc., 1997. ISBN 0376038608 --> |
| | | | |
| | ==External links== | | ==External links== |
| − | {{commonscat|Fungi}} | + | *{{wplink}} |
| − | *[http://mycology.cornell.edu/ The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology]
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| − | *[http://www.mykoweb.com/links.html MykoWeb: Mycological Links]
| + | {{stub}} |
| − | *[http://www.mushroomexpert.com/ MushroomExpert.com]
| + | [[Category:Categorize]] |
| − | *[http://www.mykoweb.com/ MykoWeb]
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| − | *[http://tomvolkfungi.net/ Tom Volk's Fungi]
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| − | *[http://www.ilmyco.gen.chicago.il.us/Terms/TermsFrame.html Illinois Mycological Association Mycological Glossary]
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| − | *[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungi.html "Introduction to the Fungi"], ''[[University of California]] Museum of Paleontology''.
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| − | *[http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/Mycology/contents.shtml ''Fungal Biology''], ''[[University of Sydney]], School of Biological Sciences'', June, 2004. – Online textbook
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| − | *[http://www.mycolog.com/fifthtoc.html ''The Fifth Kingdom''] – Online textbook
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| − | *[http://www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/ Australian National Botanic Gardens Fungi Web Site] – Online textbook
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| − | *[http://www.pnwfungi.org/ Pacific Northwest Fungi, Online Journal]
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| − | *[http://www.namyco.org/ North American Mycological Association]
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| − | *[http://www.msafungi.org/ Mycological Society of America]
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| − | *[http://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/ British Mycological Society]
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| − | *[http://sydneyfungalstudies.org.au/intro.html Sydney Fungal Studies Group]
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| − | *[http://home.arcor.de/stefan.wic/diplomarbeit.pdf#search=%22%22stefan%20wic%22%22/ fungi as mycobionts in lichens]
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| − | *[http://www.speciesfungorum.org/ CABI Bioscience Databases] - Includes ''Index Fungorum'' genus and species names and top-down hierarchy
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| − | *[http://mushroomobserver.org Mushroom Observer] - A site for recording observations of mushrooms and getting help identifying unknown collections
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| − | [[Category:Fungi| ]]
| + | <!-- in order to add all the proper categories, go to http://www.plants.am/wiki/Plant_Categories and copy/paste the contents of the page here, and then follow the easy instructions! --> |
