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{{Refimprove|date=May 2007}}
{{Otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightblue
| name = Rice
| image = Koeh-232.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Oryza sativa''
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Poales]]
| familia = [[Poaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Oryza]]''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
*''Oryza glaberrima''
*''Oryza sativa''
}}
[[Image:Brun ris.jpg|250 px|right|thumb|Brown [[basmati rice]] from [[India]]]]
[[Image:Terrace field yunnan china.jpg|right|thumb|Terrace of paddy fields in [[Yunnan]] Province, southern [[China]].]]
Domesticated '''Rice''' comprises two species in the [[Poaceae]] ("true grass") family, '''''Oryza sativa''''' and '''''Oryza glaberrima'''''. These [[plants]] are native to tropical and subtropical southern [[Asia]] and southeastern [[Africa]]. Rice provides more than one fifth of the [[calorie]]s consumed by [[human]]s in their global diets.<ref>Smith, Bruce D. ''The Emergence of Agriculture''. Scientific American Library, A Division of HPHLP, New York, 1998.</ref> (The term "[[wild rice]]" can refer to the wild species of ''Oryza'', but conventionally refers to species of the related genus ''[[Zizania]]'', both wild and domesticated.) Rice is a [[monocarpic]] [[annual plant]], growing to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and [[soil]] fertility. The grass has long, slender [[leaf|leaves]] 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small [[Anemophily|wind-pollinated]] [[flower]]s are produced in a branched arching to pendulous [[inflorescence]] 30–50 cm long. The [[seed]] is a [[grain]] (caryopsis) 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick.
Rice is a [[staple food|staple]] for a large part of the world's [[human population]], especially in [[East Asia|East]], [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]], making it the most consumed [[cereal grain]]. Rice is the world's largest crop (700 million metric tons in 2005), with [[maize]] ("corn") (694 million metric tons in 2005) and [[wheat]] (626 million metric tons in 2005) behind it.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Rice [[cultivation]] is well-suited to countries and regions with low [[labour (economics)|labour]] costs and high [[rainfall]], as it is very labour-intensive to cultivate and requires plenty of water for [[irrigation]], much like the [[licorice]] crops found in Eastern Europe. Rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on [[grade (slope)|steep]] [[mountain|hill]]sides. Although its species are native to South Asia and certain parts of [[Africa]], centuries of trade and exportation have made it commonplace in many cultures.
==Growth==
{{main|Paddy field}}
Rice is often grown in [[paddy field|paddies]]. The shallow puddles take advantage of the rice plant's tolerance to water; the water in the paddies prevents [[weed]]s from outgrowing the crop. Once the rice has established dominance of the field, the water can be drained in preparation for harvest. Paddies increase productivity, although rice can also be grown on dry land (including on [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced hillsides]]) with the help of chemical weed controls.
In some instances, a deep-water strain of rice often called ''floating rice'' is grown. Floating rice can develop elongated stems capable of coping with water depths exceeding 2 meters (6.5 feet).
Rice paddies are an important habitat for birds such as [[heron]]s and [[Old World warbler|warblers]], and a wide range of [[amphibia]]ns and [[snake]]s. They perform a useful function in controlling insect [[Pest (animal)|pests]] by providing useful habitats for those who prey on them. For most farm families in the [http://www.adb.org/GMS/about.asp Greater Mekong Subregion] the rice field is the main source of household food security. Not only does rice itself provide most of the calories in the rural diet, but the rice paddy is an important source of wild and cultivated fish [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factSheets/HowToGrowRice/fs_riceFish.pdf].
== Preparation as food ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Polished rice]]
-->
<div id="white_rice"></div>
[[Image:RICE POLISHING BY FOOT POWER.jpg|thumb|left|Old fashioned way of rice polishing in [[Japan]].]]
The seeds of the rice plant are first milled using a [[rice huller]] to remove the [[chaff]] (the outer husks of the grain). At this point in the process the product is called [[brown rice]]. This process may be continued, removing the [[cereal germ|germ]] and the rest of the husk, called the [[bran]] at this point, creating [[white rice]]. The white rice may then be buffed with glucose or talc powder (often called ''polished rice,'' though this term may also refer to white rice in general), [[parboiled rice|parboiled]], or processed into [[flour]]. The white rice may also be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lost during the milling process. While the cheapest method of enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that will easily wash off (in the United States, rice which has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directly to the grain, coating the grain with a water insoluble substance which is resistant to washing. [[Image:Rice-fields-Indonesia-(Java).jpg|thumb|Terraced rice paddy on a hillslope]]
While washing is counter-productive for powder-enriched rice, it is absolutely necessary when talc-coated rice is used, not least because of concerns about the negative health effects of talc consumption and possibility of asbestos accompanying the talc.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomach cancer), talc-coated rice remains the norm in some countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, but it has been banned in some and is no longer widely used in others such as the United States. Even where talc is not used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be used to improve the appearance of the grains; for this reason, many rice lovers still recommend washing all rice in order to create a better-tasting rice with a better consistency, despite the recommendation of suppliers. Much of the rices produced today are in fact water polished.
[[Rice bran]], called ''nuka'' in [[Japan]], is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily inner layer which is heated to produce an oil. It is also used in making a kind of [[tsukemono|pickled]] vegetable.
The raw rice may be ground into [[flour]] for many uses, including making many kinds of [[beverage]]s such as [[amazake]], [[horchata]], [[rice milk]], and [[sake]]. Rice flour is generally safe for people on a [[gluten-free diet]]. Rice may also be made into various types of [[noodle]]s. Raw wild or brown rice may also be consumed by raw foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually 1 week to 30 days).
The processed rice seeds are usually boiled or steamed to make them edible, after which they may be fried in [[cooking oil|oil]] or [[butter]], or beaten in a tub to make [[mochi]].
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Rice, raw | opt1n=Water | opt1v=13 g | kJ=1506 | protein=7 g | fat=0.6 g | carbs=79 g | vitB6_mg=0.15 | right=1}}
Rice, like other [[cereal]] [[caryopsis|grains]], can be ''puffed'' (or ''popped''). This process takes advantage of the grains' [[water]] content and typically involves heating grain pellets in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processing pre-puffed pellets in a low-[[pressure]] chamber. The [[ideal gas law]] means that either lowering the local pressure or raising the water [[temperature]] results in an increase in [[volume]] prior to water [[evaporation]], resulting in a puffy [[texture]].
==Cooking==
{{selfref|See [[:Category:Rice dishes]] and [[wikibooks:Cookbook:Rice Recipes|Wikibooks' Rice Recipes]] for information on food preparation using rice.}}
[[Image:Rice p1160004.jpg|thumb|Uncooked pre-steamed long rice]]
Rice is cooked by [[boiling]] or [[steaming]]. It can be cooked in just enough water to cook it through (the absorption method), or it can be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving (the rapid-boil method). Electric [[rice cooker]]s, which are popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice.
Rice may also be made into [[Congee|rice porridge]] by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water to the point that it becomes very soft, expanded, and fluffy. Rice porridge is very easy to digest, so it is especially suitable for the sick.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Rice may be soaked prior to cooking, which decreases cooking time. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains.
In some culinary traditions, especially those of [[Latin America]], [[Italy]], and Turkey dry rice grains are [[fried]] in [[oil]] before cooking in water.
In some countries, rice is commonly consumed as [[parboiled rice]]. Also known as easy-cook rice. Parboiled rice is subjected to a steaming or parboiling process while still a brown rice. This causes nutrients from the outer husk to move into the grain itself. The parboil process causes a gelatisisation of the starch in the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the colour of the milled grain changes from white to yellow. The rice is then dried, and can then be milled as usual or consumed as brown rice. Milled parboil rice is nutritionally superior to standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has an additional benefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking as happens when cooking regular white rice.
A nutritionally superior method of preparing brown rice known as '''GABA Rice''' or GBR (Germinated Brown Rice)<ref>Shoichi Ito and Yukihiro Ishikawa Tottori University, Japan. {{cite web | title=(Marketing of Value-Added Rice Products in Japan: Germinated Grown Rice and Rice Bread.) | url=http://www.hatsuga.com/DOMER/english/en/GBRRB.html | accessdate=February 12 | accessyear=2004 }}</ref> may be used. This involves soaking washed brown rice for 20 hours in warm water (38 [[degree Celsius|°C]] or 100 [[degree Fahrenheit|°F]]) prior to cooking it. This process stimulates [[germination]], which [[activator|activates]] various [[enzymes]] in the rice. By this method, a result of research carried out for the [[United Nations]] Year of Rice, it is possible to obtain a more complete [[amino acid]] profile, including [[GABA]].
== Production History ==
===Etymology===
It is widely accepted that the term Rice comes from the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word for rice ''Arisi''. According to ''[[Encarta|Microsoft Encarta Dictionary]]'' (2004) and to ''[[Chambers Dictionary of Etymology]]'' (1988), the word ''rice'' has an [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] origin. It came to [[English language|English]] from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''óryza'', via [[Latin]] ''oriza'', [[Italian language|Italian]] ''riso'' and finally [[Old French]] ''ris'' (the same as present day [[French language|French]] ''riz'').
<br>The same Tamil origin produced the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''ar-ruzz'', from which the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''arroz'' originated.
[[Orzo]], a pasta shaped like small grains of rice, presumably gets its name from the Latin ''oriza''.
===Genetic History===
[[Image:RiceCloseUp.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Japan]]ese short-grain rice]]
Two species of rice were [[domesticated]], Asian rice (''O. sativa'') and African rice (''O. glaberrima''). According to Londo and Chiang, ''O. sativa'' appears to have been domesticated from wild (Asian) rice, ''Oryza rufipogon'' around the [[foothills]] of the [[Himalayas]], with ''O. sativa'' var. ''indica'' on the [[India]]n side and ''O. sativa'' var. ''japonica'' on the Chinese and [[Japan]]ese side<ref>J.P. Londo, Y. Chiang et al, "Phylogeography of Asian wild rice, Oryza rufipogon, reveals multiple independent domestications of cultivated rice, Oryza sativa", PNAS 103(25):9578–83, 2006 ([http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0603152103v1])</ref>.
There are three groups of ''Oryza sativa'' cultivars: the short-grained "japonica" or "sinica" varieties, exemplifie
d by [[Japanese rice]]; the long-grained "[[indica]]" varieties, exemplified by [[Basmati rice]]; and the broad-grained "javonica" varieties, which thrive under tropical conditions (Zohary and Hopf, 2000). The earliest find site for the javonica variety, dated to the fifth millennium BC, was in the earliest phases of the [[Hemudu culture]] on the south side of [[Hangzhou Bay]] in [[China]], but was found along with japonica types.
=== Continental East Asia ===
Z. Zhao, a Chinese [[paleoethnobotany|palaeoethnobotanist]], hypothesizes that people of the [[Late Pleistocene]] began to collect wild rice. Zhao explains that the collection of wild rice from an early date eventually led to its domestication and then the exclusive use of domesticated rice strains by circa 6400 B.C. at the latest <ref>Zhao, Z. 1998. The Middle Yangtze Region in China is the Place Where Rice was Domesticated: Phytolithic Evidence from the Diaotonghuan Cave, Northern Jiangxi. ''Antiquity'' 72:885–897.</ref>. Stone tool evidence from the Yunchanyan site in [[Hunan]] province suggests the possibility that Early [[Neolithic]] groups cultivated rice as early as circa 9000 B.C. <ref>Crawford, G.W. and C. Shen. 1998. The Origins of Rice Agriculture: Recent Progress in East Asia. ''Antiquity'' 72:858–866.</ref>. Crawford and Shen point out that calibrated radiocarbon dates show that direct evidence of the earliest cultivated rice is no older than 7000 B.C. [[Jared Diamond]], a biologist and popular science author, summarizes some of the work done by professional archaeologists mentioned above and estimates that the earliest attested domestication of rice took place in China by 7500 B.C.<ref>{{cite book | last = Diamond | first = Jared | authorlink = Jared Diamond | year = 1999 | title = Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies | publisher = W.W. Norton & Company | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-393-31755-2}}</ref>
One early findspot of rice from [[Pengtoushan]] in the [[Hupei]] basin was dated by AMS radiocarbon techniques to 6400–5800 BC (Zohary and Hopf 2000), but most of the Neolithic sites in China with finds of charred rice and radiocarbon dates are from 5000 BC or later (Crawford and Shen 1998). This evidence leads most archaeologists to say that large-scale dry-land rice farming began between 5000 and 4500 BC in the area of [[Yangtze Delta]] (for example [[Hemudu culture]], discovered in 1970s), and the wet-rice cultivation began at approximately 2500 BC in the same area ([[Liangzhu culture]]). It is now commonly thought that some areas such as the alluvial plains in [[Shaoxing]] and [[Ningbo]] in [[Zhejiang]] province are the cradle-lands of East Asian rice cultivation. Finally, ancient textual evidence of the cultivation of rice in China dates to 3000 years ago.
=== South Asia ===
Wild rice appeared in the Belan and [[Ganges]] valley regions of [[northern India]] as early as 4530 BC and 5440 BC respectively. Agricultural activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the [[Kashmir]] and mature [[Harappa|Harrappan -Pakistan]] regions.<ref>Sorghum: Origin, History, Technology, and Production By C. Wayne Smith.Published 2000. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471242373</ref> Mixed farming was the basis of [[Indus valley]] economy. Farmers planted their crops in integrated fields. Rice, grown on the west coast, was cultivated in the Indus valley.<ref>World History: Societies of the Past / Charles Kahn ... [et Al.] By Charles Kahn.Published 2005. Portage & Main Press. ISBN 1553790456. pg 92</ref> Rice, alongwith barley, meat, dairy products and fish constituted the dietary staple of the ancient [[Dravidian people]].<ref>Food Culture in India By Colleen Taylor. Sen. Published 2004. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313324875</ref>
There is mention of ApUpa, Puro-das and Odana (rice-gruel) in the [[Rig Veda]], terms that refer to rice dishes,<ref>Cf. Talageri (2000) [[Shrikant G. Talageri|Talageri, Shrikant]]: [[The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis]], 2000. ISBN 81-7742-010-0</ref> The rigvedic commentator [[Sayana]] refers to '
'"tandula"'' when commenting on RV 1.16.2., which means rice.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106). With reference to Sontakke and Kashikar, 1983</ref> The Rigvedic term ''dhana'' (dhanaa, dhanya) means rice.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106).</ref> Both [[Charaka]] and [[Sushruta]] mention rice in detail.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106).</ref> The [[Arthasastra]] discusses aspects of rice cultivation.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106).</ref> The ''Kashyapiyakrishisukti'' by [[Kashyapa]] is the most detailed ancient Sanskrit text on rice cultivation.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106).</ref>
=== Korean peninsula and Japanese archipelago ===
[[Image:Riziere Oki.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hiroshige|Utagawa Hiroshige]], ''Rice field in Oki province, view of O-Yama''.]]
In 2003 archaeologists alleged that they discovered burnt grains (domesticated rice) in Soro-ri, Korea, that predate the oldest grains in China. This find potentially challenges the mainstream explanation that domesticated rice originated in China.<ref>Cf. BBC news (2003) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3207552.stm]</ref> Unfortunately, the media reports of the Soro-ri charred grains are brief and lack sufficient detail for archaeologists and other scientists to properly evaluate the true meaning of this unusual find.
Reliable, mainstream archaeological evidence derived from palaeoethnobotanical investigations indicate that dry-land rice was introduced to [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] some time between [[3500 BC|3500]] and [[1200 BC]]. The cultivation of rice in Korea and Japan during that time occurred on a small-scale, fields were impermanent plots, and evidence shows that in some cases domesticated and wild grains were planted together. The technological, subsistence, and social impact of rice and grain cultivation is not evident in archaeological data until after [[1500 BC]]. For example, intensive wet-[[paddy field|paddy]] rice agriculture was introduced into Korea shortly before or during the Middle [[Mumun Pottery Period]] (c. 850–550 BC) and reached Japan by the Final Jōmon or Initial [[Yayoi]] circa [[300 BC]] <ref>Crawford, G.W. and G.-A. Lee. 2003. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. ''Antiquity'' 77(295):87–95.</ref><ref>Crawford and Shen 1998</ref>.
===Africa===
African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between [[1500 BC|1500]] and [[800 BC]], ''O. glaberrima'' propagated from its original centre, the [[Niger River]] [[river delta|delta]], and extended to [[Senegal]]. However, it never developed far from its original region. Its cultivation even declined in favour of the Asian species, possibly brought to the African [[continent]] by Arabs coming from the east coast between the [[7th century|7th]] and [[11th century|11th]] centuries CE.
===Near East and Europe===
According to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), ''O. sativa'' was introduced to the [[Middle East]] in [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] times, and was familiar to both Greek and Roman writers. They report that a large sample of rice grains was recovered from a grave at [[Susa]] in [[Iran]] (dated to the first century AD) at one end of the ancient world, while at the same time rice was grown in the [[Po River|Po]] valley in Italy. However, [[Pliny the Elder]] writes that rice (''oryza'') is grown only in "Egypt, Syria, Cilicia, Asia Minor and Greece" (''[[Natural History (Pliny)|N.H.]]'' 18.19). The [[Moors]] brought it to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] when they conquered it in [[711]]. After the middle of the [[15th century]], rice spread throughout [[Italy]] and then [[France]], later propagating to all the continents during the great age of European exploration.
===The Americas===
In 1694, rice arrived in [[South Caroli
na]], probably originating from [[Madagascar]]. The Spanish brought rice to [[South America]] at the beginning of the [[18th century]].
In the [[United States]], [[colonial]] South Carolina and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] grew and amassed great [[wealth]] from the [[Slavery|slave]] labour obtained from the [[Senegambia (geography)|Senegambia]] area of [[West Africa]]. At the [[port]] of Charleston, through which 40% of all American slave imports passed, slaves from this region of [[Africa]] brought the highest prices, in recognition of their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was put to use on the many rice [[plantation]]s around [[Georgetown, South Carolina|Georgetown]], [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], and [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]]. From the slaves, plantation owners learned how to dyke the [[marsh]]es and periodically flood the fields. At first the rice was milled by hand with [[wood]]en paddles, then winnowed in [[sweetgrass]] [[basket]]s (the making of which was another skill brought by the slaves). The invention of the rice [[mill (factory)|mill]] increased profitability of the crop, and the addition of water power for the mills in 1787 by [[millwright]] [[Jonathan Lucas]] was another step forward. Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less [[profit]]able with the loss of slave labour after the [[American Civil War]], and it finally died out just after the turn of the [[20th century]]. The predominant strain of rice in the Carolinas was from Africa and was known as "Carolina Gold." The [[cultivar]] has been preserved and there are current attempts to reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop.<ref>http://www.carolinagoldricefoundation.org/ Carolina Gold Rice Foundation</ref>
References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unrelated [[Wild rice|''Zizania palustris'']]
===Australia===
Although attempts to grow rice in the well-watered north of Australia have been made for many years, they have consistently failed because of inherent [[iron]] and [[manganese]] toxicities in the soils and destruction by [[pest]]s.
Australia south of the nineteenth parallel has no water source adequate for rice cultivation. Nevertheless, in the [[1920s]] it was seen as a possible [[irrigation in Australia|irrigation]] crop on soils within the [[Murray-Darling Basin]] that were too heavy for the cultivation of fruit and too infertile for [[wheat]]<ref>Wadham, Sir Samuel; Wilson, R. Kent and Wood, Joyce; '''Land Utilization in Australia''', 3rd ed. Published 1957 by Melbourne University Press; p. 246</ref>.
Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runoff of temperate Australia, was (and remains) very cheap, the growing of rice was taken up by agricultural groups over the following decades. Californian varieties of rice were found suitable for the climate in the [[Riverina]], and the first mill opened at [[Leeton, New South Wales|Leeton]] in [[1951]].
Even before this Australia's rice production greatly exceeded local needs<ref>Ibid.</ref>, and rice exports to Japan have become a major source of foreign currency. Above-average rainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s<ref>Australian Bureau of Meteorology; '''Climatic Atlas of Australia: Rainfall'''; published 2000 by Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, Victoria</ref> encouraged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but its prodigous water use in a practically waterless region began to attract the attention of environmental scientists. These became severely concerned with declining flow in the [[Snowy River]] and the lower [[Murray River]].
Although rice growing in Australia is exceedingly efficient and highly profitable due to the cheapness of land, several recent years of severe drought have led many to call for its elimination because of its effects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosystems. Politicians, however, have not made any plan to reduce rice growing in southern Australia.
== Gene modification ==
=== Ventria rice with human proteins ===
Rice was modified to [[gene expression|express]] [[lactoferrin]], [[lysozyme]], [[hum
an serum albumin]] which are [[protein]]s that are usually found in [[breast milk]] and have antiviral, bacterial, fungal effects as [[Ventria Bioscience|Ventria]] declares.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070514/full/070514-17.html#B1 Nature's story]
</ref>
The purpose of the [[gene modification]] of rice is to use the resulting [[seed]]s in making of drinks that can cure [[diarrhoea]] and dietary supplements to help reverse [[anaemia]]
<ref>Bethell D. R., Huang J., et al. BioMetals, 17. 337 - 342 (2004).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?holding=npg&cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15222487&dopt=Abstract]</ref>
== World production and trade ==
[[Image:2005rice_%28paddy%29.PNG|thumb|right|Paddy rice output in 2005]]
{| class="wikitable" align="left" style="clear:left"
! colspan=2|Top Paddy Rice Producers — 2005<br>(million metric ton)
|-
| {{CHN}} || align="right" | 182
|-
| {{IND}} || align="right" | 137
|-
| {{IDN}} || align="right" | 54
|-
| {{BAN}} || align="right" | 40
|-
| {{VNM}} || align="right" | 36
|-
| {{THA}} || align="right" | 27
|-
| {{MMR}} || align="right" | 25
|-
|{{PAK}} || align="right" | 18
|-
| {{PHI}} || align="right" | 15
|-
| {{BRA}} || align="right" | 13
|-
|{{JPN}} || align="right" | 11
|-
|'''World Total''' || align="right" | '''700'''
|-
|colspan=2|''Source: <br>[[UN Food & Agriculture Organisation]] (FAO)''[http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops.Primary&Domain=Production&servlet=1&hasbulk=0&version=ext&language=EN]
|}
World production of rice<ref>all figures from UNCTAD 1998–2002 and the [http://www.irri.org/science/ricestat/index.asp International Rice Research Institute] statistics (accessed September 2005)</ref> has risen steadily from about 200 million tons of paddy rice in 1960 to 600 million tons in 2004. Milled rice is about 68% of paddy rice by weight. In the year 2004, the top three producers were China (26% of world production), India (20%), and Indonesia (9%).
World trade figures are very different, as only about 5–6% of rice produced is traded internationally. The largest three exporting countries are [[Thailand]] (26% of world exports), [[Vietnam]] (15%), and the [[United States]] (11%), while the largest three importers are Indonesia (14%), Bangladesh (4%), and Brazil (3%).
Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia, for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used for rice production (see ''The Burning of the Rice'' by Don Puckridge for the story of rice production in Cambodia [http://sidharta.com/books/index.jsp?uid=67]).
==Rice pests==
{{Main|List of rice diseases}}
Rice pests are any [[organisms]] or [[microbes]] with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of rice seeds)<ref>Jahn et al. 2000</ref> (Jahn et al 2007). Rice pests include [[weed]]s, [[pathogen]]s, [[insect]]s, [[rodent]]s, and [[bird]]s. A variety of factors can contribute to pest outbreaks, including the overuse of [[pesticides]] and high rates of [[nitrogen fertilizer]] application (e.g. Jahn et al. 2005)[http://docserver.esa.catchword.org/deliver/cw/pdf/esa/freepdfs/0046225x/v34n4s26.pdf]. Weather conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to follow high rainfall early in the wet season, while [[thrip]]s outbreaks are associated with drought ([http://www.aciar.gov.au/web.nsf/att/ACIA-6Y2342/$file/Rice%20In%20Laos%20chapter%2016-25.pdf Douangboupha et al. 2006]).
One of the challenges facing crop protection specialists is to develop rice pest management techniques which are sustainable. In other words, to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened (Jahn et al. 2001). Rice pests are managed by cultural techniques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and [[pesticide]]s (which include [[insecticide]]). Increasingly, there is evidence that farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary (Jahn et al. [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/docs/pestMgmtCamLoLnd.pdf 1996], [http://www.petrra-irri.org/html/
sp_doc_download.asp?doc_id=105 2004a,b)] [http://www.scidev.net/Features/index.cfm?fuseaction=readfeatures&itemid=306&language=1][http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.wmv][http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.rm]. By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice pests (Jahn 1992), misuse of insecticides can actually lead to pest outbreaks (Cohen et al. 1994). Botanicals, so-called “natural pesticides”, are used by some farmers in an attempt to control rice pests, but in general the practice is not common. Upland rice is grown without standing water in the field. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodia spread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (''Chromolaena odorata'' (L.)) over the surface of fields after planting. The practice probably helps the soil retain moisture and thereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claim the leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weed and insect infestations (Jahn et al. 1999).
Among rice cultivars there are differences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage ([http://titania.esa.catchword.org/vl=10988418/cl=24/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/00220493/v97n6/s20/p1923 Jahn et al. 2004c], Khiev et al. 2000). Therefore, particular cultivars are recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems. Major rice pests include the brown [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_planthoppers.pdf planthopper][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_planthopper] (Preap et al. 2006), [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_armyworms.pdf armyworms][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_armyworm], [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_glh.pdf the green leafhopper,] the rice gall midge (Jahn and Khiev 2004), the [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_riceBug.pdf rice bug] [http://titania.esa.catchword.org/vl=10988418/cl=24/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/00220493/v97n6/s20/p1923 (Jahn et al. 2004c)], hispa (Murphy et al. 2006), [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_riceLeafFolder.pdf the rice leaffolder], [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_stemBorer.pdf stemborer,] rats (Leung et al 2002), and the weed ''Echinochloa crusgali'' (Pheng et al. 2001). Major rice diseases include [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ricedoctor_mx/Fact_Sheets/Diseases/Rice_Ragged_Stunt.htm Rice Ragged Stunt], [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Diseases/fs_sheathBlight.pdf Sheath Blight] and [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Diseases/fs_tungro.pdf Tungro.] [[Rice blast]], caused by the [[fungus]] ''Magnaporthe grisea'', is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation.
==Cultivars==
{{main|List of rice varieties}}
The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the [[International Rice Research Institute]] ([http://www.irri.org/ IRRI]), with over 100,000 rice accessions [http://www.irri.org/media/press/press.asp?id=1] held in the International Rice Genebank [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9291960&dopt=Abstract]. Rice [[cultivar]]s are often classified by their grain shapes and texture. For example, Thai [[Jasmine rice]] is long-grain and relatively less sticky, as long-grain rice contains less [[amylopectin]] than short-grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants usually serve long-grain as plain unseasoned steamed rice. Japanese [[mochigome|mochi rice]] and Chinese [[sticky rice]] are short-grain. Chinese people use sticky rice which is properly known as "glutinous rice" (note: glutinous refer to the glue-like characteristic of rice; does not refer to "gluten") to make [[zongzi]]. The [[Japanese rice|Japanese table rice]] is a sticky, short-grain rice. Japanese [[sake]] rice is another kind as well.
Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic [[Basmati]] (grown in the North), long and medium-grained [[Patna rice]] and short-grained Masoori. In South India the most prized cultivar is 'ponni' which is primarily grown in the delta regions of [[Kaveri]] River. [[Kaveri]] is also referred to as ponni in the South and the name reflects the geographic region where it is grown. Rice in [[East India]] and [[South India]], is usually prepared by boiling the rice in large pans immediately after harvesting and before removing the husk; this is referred to in English as ''[[parboiled rice]]''. It is then dried, and the husk removed later. It often displays small red speckles, and has a smoky flavour from the fires. Usually coarser rice is used for this procedure. It helps to retain the natural vitamins and kill any [[fungus|fungi]] or other contaminants, but leads to an odour which some find peculiar. This rice is easier on the stomach to digest.{{Fact|date=July 2007}} In [[South India]], it is also used to make [[idli]]s. In the Western Indian state of [[Maharashtra]], a short grain variety called [[Ambemohar]] is very popular. this rice has a characteristic fragrance of Mango blossom.
[[Image:Brown rice.jpg|thumb|Brown Rice]]
[[Image:sona-masuri.jpg|right|thumb|Polished Indian [[sona masuri]] rice.]]
Aromatic rices have definite aromas and flavours; the most noted cultivars are [[Thai fragrant rice]], Basmati, Patna rice, and a [[hybrid]] cultivar from America sold under the trade name, [[Texmati]]. It is a cross between Basmati and American long-grained rice that is creating great controversy.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Both Basmati and Texmati have a mild [[popcorn]]-like aroma and flavour. In Indonesia there are also ''red'' and ''black'' cultivars.
High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in [[Africa]] and other dry [[ecosystem]]s called the [[New Rice for Africa|new rice for Africa]] (NERICA) cultivars have been developed. It is hoped that their cultivation will improve [[food security]] in [[West Africa]].
Scientists are working on so-called ''[[golden rice]]'' which is genetically modified to produce beta [[carotene]], the precursor to [[vitamin A]].
Draft [[genome]]s for the two most common rice cultivars, ''indica'' and ''japonica'', were published in April 2002. Rice was chosen as a [[model organism]] for the biology of grasses because of its relatively small genome (~430 mega[[base pair]]s). Rice was the first crop with a complete genome sequence.<ref>{{cite news | last=Gillis | first=Justing | title=Rice Genome Fully Mapped | date=August 11, 2005 | publisher=washingtonpost.com | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/10/AR2005081001054.html?referrer=email }}</ref> Basmati rice is the oldest, common [[progenitor]] for most types.
On [[December 16]], [[2002]], the [[UN General Assembly]] declared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. The declaration was sponsored by more than 40 countries.
==See also==
[[Image:US long grain rice.jpg|right|thumb|American long-grain rice]]
[[Image:Hinohikari.jpg|thumb|Japanese short-grain rice]]
* [[Beaten rice]]
* [[Bhutanese red rice]]
* [[Black rice]]
* [[Brown rice syrup]]
* [[Forbidden rice]]
* [[Inari (god)|Inari]]
* [[Indonesian rice table]]
* [[List of rice dishes]]
* [[List of rice varieties]]
* [[New Rice for Africa]]
* [[Protein per unit area]]
* [[Puffed rice]]
* [[Red rice]]
* [[Rice Belt]]
* [[Rice bran oil]]
* [[Rice wine]]
* [[Riceland Foods]]
* [[System of rice intensification]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}
== References ==
*Cohen, J. E., K. Schoenly, K. L. Heong, H. Justo, G. Arida, A. T. Barrion, J. A. Litsinger. 1994. A Food Web Approach to Evaluating the Effect of Insecticide Spraying on Insect Pest Population Dynamics in a Philippine Irrigated Rice Ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 747–763. doi:10.2307/2404165
*Crawford, G.W. and C. Shen. 1998. The Origins of Rice Agriculture: Recent Progress in East Asia. Antiquity 72:858–866.
*Crawford, G.W. and G.-A. Lee. 2003. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. Antiquity 77(295):87–95.
*Douangboupha, B., K. Khamphoukeo
, S. Inthavong, J. Schiller, and G. Jahn. 2006. Pests and diseases of the rice production systems of Laos. Pp. 265–281. In J.M. Schiller, M.B. Chanphengxay, B. Linquist, and S. Appa Rao, editors. Rice in Laos. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 457 p. ISBN 978-971-22-0211-7.
*Heong, KL, YH Chen, DE Johnson, GC Jahn, M Hossain, RS Hamilton. 2005. Debate Over a GM Rice Trial in China. Letters. Science, Vol 310, Issue 5746, 231–233 , 14 October 2005.
*Huang, J., Ruifa Hu, Scott Rozelle, Carl Pray. 2005. Insect-Resistant GM Rice in Farmers' Fields: Assessing Productivity and Health Effects in China. Science (29 April 2005) Vol. 308. no. 5722, pp. 688–690. DOI: 10.1126/science.1108972
*Jahn, G. C. 1992. Rice pest control and effects on predators in Thailand. Insecticide & Acaricide Tests 17:252–253.
*Jahn, GC and B. Khiev. 2004. Gall midge in Cambodian lowland rice. pp. 71–76. In J. Benett, JS Bentur, IC Pasula, K. Krishnaiah, [eds]. New approaches to gall midge resistance in rice. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute and Indian Council of Agricultural Research. 195 p.
*Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, B. Khiev, and C. Pol. 1996. Farmers’ pest management and rice production practices in Cambodian lowland rice. Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project (CIAP), Baseline Survey Report No. 6. CIAP Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 28 pages. [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/docs/pestMgmtCamLoLnd.pdf]
*Jahn, G. C., B. Khiev, S. Pheng, and C. Pol. 1997. Pest management in rice. In H. J. Nesbitt [ed.] "Rice Production in Cambodia." Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 83–91.
*Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, B. Khiev, and C. Pol. 1997. Pest management practices of lowland rice farmers in Cambodia. In K. L. Heong and M. M. Escalada [editors] "Pest Management Practices of Rice Farmers in Asia." Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 35–52. ISBN 971-22-0102-3
*Jahn, G. C., C. Pol, B. Khiev, S. Pheng, and N. Chhorn. 1999. Farmer’s pest management and rice production practices in Cambodian upland and deepwater rice. Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project, Baseline Survey Report No. 7.[http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/docs/pestManDeepUplandCambodia.pdf]
*Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, B. Khiev and C. Pol 2000. Ecological characterization of biotic constraints to rice in Cambodia. International Rice Research Notes (IRRN) 25 (3): 23–24.
*Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, C. Pol, B. Khiev 2000. Characterizing biotic constraints to production of Cambodian rainfed lowland rice: limitations to statistical techniques. pp. 247–268 In T. P. Tuong, S. P. Kam, L. Wade, S. Pandey, B. A. M. Bouman, B. Hardy [eds.] “Characterizing and Understanding Rainfed Environments.” Proceedings of the International Workshop on Characterizing and Understanding Rainfed Environments, 5–9 Dec. 1999, Bali, Indonesia. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). 488 p.
*Jahn, GC, B. Khiev, C. Pol, N. Chhorn, S. Pheng, and V. Preap. 2001. Developing sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia. pp. 243–258, In S. Suthipradit, C. Kuntha, S. Lorlowhakarn, and J. Rakngan [eds.] “Sustainable Agriculture: Possibility and Direction” Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Conference on Sustainable Agriculture 18–20 October 1999, Phitsanulok, Thailand. Bangkok (Thailand): National Science and Technology Development Agency. 386 p.
*Jahn, GC, NQ Kamal, S Rokeya, AK Azad, NI Dulu, JB Orsini, A Barrion, and L Almazan. 2004a. Completion Report on Livelihood Improvement Through Ecology (LITE), PETRRA IPM Subproject SP 27 02. Poverty Elimination Through Rice Research Assistance (PETRRA), IRRI, Dhaka. 20 pages text plus 20 pages appendices. [http://www.petrra-irri.org/html/sp_doc_download.asp?doc_id=105]
*Jahn, GC, NQ Kamal, S Rokeya, AK Azad, NI Dulu, JB Orsini, M Morshed, NMS Dhar, NA Kohinur 2004b. Evaluation Report on Livelihood Improvement Through Ecology (LITE), PETRRA IPM Subproject SP 27 02. Poverty Elimination Through Rice Research Assistanc
e (PETRRA), IRRI, Dhaka. 42 pages plus 40 pages of annexes.[http://www.petrra-irri.org/html/sp_doc_download.asp?doc_id=106]
*Jahn, GC, I. Domingo, L. P. Almazan and J. Pacia. 2004c. Effect of rice bugs (Alydidae: Leptocorisa oratorius (Fabricius)) on rice yield, grain quality, and seed viability. Journal of Economic Entomology 97(6): 1923–1927.[http://docserver.esa.catchword.org/deliver/cw/pdf/esa/freepdfs/00220493/v97n6s20.pdf]
*Jahn, GC, LP Almazan, and J Pacia. 2005. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, ''Hysteroneura setariae'' (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.). Environmental Entomology 34 (4): 938–943.[http://docserver.esa.catchword.org/deliver/cw/pdf/esa/freepdfs/0046225x/v34n4s26.pdf]
*Jahn, GC, JA Litsinger, Y Chen and A Barrion. 2007. Integrated Pest Management of Rice: Ecological Concepts. In Ecologically Based Integrated Pest Management (eds. O. Koul and G.W. Cuperus). CAB International Pp. 315–366.
*Khiev, B., G. C. Jahn, C. Pol, and N. Chhorn 2000. Effects of simulated pest damage on rice yields. IRRN 25 (3): 27–28.
*Leung LKP, Peter G. Cox, Gary C. Jahn and Robert Nugent. 2002. Evaluating rodent management with Cambodian rice farmers. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture Vol. 5, pp. 21–26.
*Murphy, S, J Stonehouse, J Holt, J Venn, NQ Kamal, MF Rabbi, MH Haque, G Jahn, B Barrion. 2006. Ecology and management of rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera) in Bangladesh. Pp. 162––164. In Perspectives on Pests II: Achievements of research under UK Department for International Development, Crop Protection Programme 2000–05. Natural Resources International Limited. 206 pages. [http://www.cpp.uk.com/outputs.asp?step=5&pid=63]
*Pheng, S., B. Khiev, C. Pol and G. C. Jahn 2001. Response of two rice cultivars to the competition of ''Echinochloa crus-gali'' (L.) P. Beauv. International Rice Research Institute Notes (IRRN) 26 (2): 36–37.
*Preap V., M. P. Zalucki and G. C. Jahn. 2006. Brown planthopper outbreaks and management. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture 7(1): 17–25.
*Preap, V, GC Jahn, K Hin, N Siheng. 2005. Fish and rice management system to enable agricultural diversification. Paper presented at the 5th Asia-Pacific Congress of Entomology, 18–21 Oct. 2005, Jeju, Korea.
*Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106) [http://www.agri-history.org/pdf/R-r.pdf]
*Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, ''Domestication of plants in the Old World'', third edition Oxford: University Press, 2000.
*Zhao, Z. 1998. The Middle Yangtze Region in China is the Place Where Rice was Domesticated: Phytolithic Evidence from the Diaotonghuan Cave, Northern Jiangxi. Antiquity 72:885–897.
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
{{wiktionary}}
{{commons|Rice}}
===General===
* [http://www.faohi.org/rice2004/index_en.htm 2004: International Year of Rice]
* [http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/rice/characteristics.htm Infocomm/UNCTAD]
* [http://www.irri.org/ International Rice Research Institute]
* [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ Rice Knowledge Bank]
* [http://www.plantcultures.org.uk/plants/rice_landing.html Plant Cultures: botany, history and uses of rice]
* [http://www.guidetothailand.com/thailand-history/rice.htm A Brief History of Rice]
* [http://www.agri-history.org/pdf/R-r.pdf Rice Research in South Asia through Ages] ([[PDF]])
===Rice research===
*[http://www.irri.org/publications/irrn/ International Rice Research Notes]
*[http://sidharta.com/books/index.jsp?uid=190 '''Fredenburg, P. and B. Hill. 2006.''' ''Sharing Rice for Peace and Prosperity in the Greater Mekong Subregion.'' Sid Harta Publishers, Victoria. ISBN 1-921206-08-X. pp271.]
*[http://www.irri.org/publications/today/pdfs/4-1/12-17.pdf Intensify to Diversify: a rice intensification project in Cambodia]
* [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/ipmCambodiaProject/ipmCambodiaProject.htm Report on development of IPM for rice program in Cambodia]
===Rice in agriculture===
* [http://www.apsnet.org/online/common/names/rice.asp
American Phytopathological Society: Diseases of Rice (''Oryza sativa'')]
* [http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/afris/Data/312.HTM FAO: Animal Feed Resources Information System, Oryza sativa]
* [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/commonpests/CommonPests.htm International Rice Research Institute: Common Insect Pests of Rice]
* [http://www.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Rice/papers/zhimin99.htm Origin of Chinese rice cultivation]
*[http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factSheets/HowToGrowRice/fs_riceFish.pdf Rice-fish systems].
===Rice pests and diseases===
*[http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_glh.pdf Green Leafhopper]
*Stemborer [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_stemBorer.pdf in English] [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalsites/indonesia/PDF%20files/stemborer%20Ind.pdf in Indonesian]
*[http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Diseases/fs_sheathBlight.pdf Sheath Blight]
*Tungro [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Diseases/fs_tungro.pdf in English] [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalsites/indonesia/PDF%20files/tungro%20Ind.pdf in Indonesian]
===Rice as food===
* [http://chinesefood.about.com/od/chinesecookingbasics/ss/cook_rice_photo.htm How to Cook Rice Step-by-Step Photos]
* [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=6676983 US Patent 6,676,983: Puffed food starch product]
* [http://www.beabree.com/2007-06/rice-again-how-to-save-a-bad-batch-of-rice-and-other-tips/ How to Save a Bad Batch of Rice and Other Tips]
===Rice economics===
* [http://www.crnindia.com/commodity/rice.html Rice as a Commodity]
* [http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/rice/market.htm UNCTAD market information]
* [http://www.freetrade.org/node/539 Grain Drain: The Hidden Cost of U.S. Rice Subsidies]
* [http://www.rice.com.vn/ Vietnamese Rice Website]
===Rice genome===
* [[n:Chinese authorities question genetically altered rice allegation]]
* [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Projets/Projet_CC/organisme_CC.html Oryza sativa The rice genome, a "Rosetta stone" for other cereals]
* [http://rgp.dna.affrc.go.jp/ Rice Genome Research Program]
* [http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030047 Rice Genome Approaches Completion]
* [http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0030038 The Genomes of Oryza sativa: A History of Duplications]
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/06/060612222106.htm Biologists Trace Back Genetic Origins Of Rice Domestication]
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19125643.900&feedId=online-news_rss20 Waterproof rice can outlast the floods] — Researchers have tracked down a gene that allows the plant to survive complete submersion
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Cereals}}
{{Link GA|zh}}
[[Category:Staple foods]]
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Grasses]]
[[Category:Model organisms]]
[[Category:Rice| ]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Tamil words and phrases]]
{{Otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightblue
| name = Rice
| image = Koeh-232.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Oryza sativa''
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Poales]]
| familia = [[Poaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Oryza]]''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
*''Oryza glaberrima''
*''Oryza sativa''
}}
[[Image:Brun ris.jpg|250 px|right|thumb|Brown [[basmati rice]] from [[India]]]]
[[Image:Terrace field yunnan china.jpg|right|thumb|Terrace of paddy fields in [[Yunnan]] Province, southern [[China]].]]
Domesticated '''Rice''' comprises two species in the [[Poaceae]] ("true grass") family, '''''Oryza sativa''''' and '''''Oryza glaberrima'''''. These [[plants]] are native to tropical and subtropical southern [[Asia]] and southeastern [[Africa]]. Rice provides more than one fifth of the [[calorie]]s consumed by [[human]]s in their global diets.<ref>Smith, Bruce D. ''The Emergence of Agriculture''. Scientific American Library, A Division of HPHLP, New York, 1998.</ref> (The term "[[wild rice]]" can refer to the wild species of ''Oryza'', but conventionally refers to species of the related genus ''[[Zizania]]'', both wild and domesticated.) Rice is a [[monocarpic]] [[annual plant]], growing to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and [[soil]] fertility. The grass has long, slender [[leaf|leaves]] 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small [[Anemophily|wind-pollinated]] [[flower]]s are produced in a branched arching to pendulous [[inflorescence]] 30–50 cm long. The [[seed]] is a [[grain]] (caryopsis) 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick.
Rice is a [[staple food|staple]] for a large part of the world's [[human population]], especially in [[East Asia|East]], [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]], making it the most consumed [[cereal grain]]. Rice is the world's largest crop (700 million metric tons in 2005), with [[maize]] ("corn") (694 million metric tons in 2005) and [[wheat]] (626 million metric tons in 2005) behind it.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Rice [[cultivation]] is well-suited to countries and regions with low [[labour (economics)|labour]] costs and high [[rainfall]], as it is very labour-intensive to cultivate and requires plenty of water for [[irrigation]], much like the [[licorice]] crops found in Eastern Europe. Rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on [[grade (slope)|steep]] [[mountain|hill]]sides. Although its species are native to South Asia and certain parts of [[Africa]], centuries of trade and exportation have made it commonplace in many cultures.
==Growth==
{{main|Paddy field}}
Rice is often grown in [[paddy field|paddies]]. The shallow puddles take advantage of the rice plant's tolerance to water; the water in the paddies prevents [[weed]]s from outgrowing the crop. Once the rice has established dominance of the field, the water can be drained in preparation for harvest. Paddies increase productivity, although rice can also be grown on dry land (including on [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced hillsides]]) with the help of chemical weed controls.
In some instances, a deep-water strain of rice often called ''floating rice'' is grown. Floating rice can develop elongated stems capable of coping with water depths exceeding 2 meters (6.5 feet).
Rice paddies are an important habitat for birds such as [[heron]]s and [[Old World warbler|warblers]], and a wide range of [[amphibia]]ns and [[snake]]s. They perform a useful function in controlling insect [[Pest (animal)|pests]] by providing useful habitats for those who prey on them. For most farm families in the [http://www.adb.org/GMS/about.asp Greater Mekong Subregion] the rice field is the main source of household food security. Not only does rice itself provide most of the calories in the rural diet, but the rice paddy is an important source of wild and cultivated fish [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factSheets/HowToGrowRice/fs_riceFish.pdf].
== Preparation as food ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Polished rice]]
-->
<div id="white_rice"></div>
[[Image:RICE POLISHING BY FOOT POWER.jpg|thumb|left|Old fashioned way of rice polishing in [[Japan]].]]
The seeds of the rice plant are first milled using a [[rice huller]] to remove the [[chaff]] (the outer husks of the grain). At this point in the process the product is called [[brown rice]]. This process may be continued, removing the [[cereal germ|germ]] and the rest of the husk, called the [[bran]] at this point, creating [[white rice]]. The white rice may then be buffed with glucose or talc powder (often called ''polished rice,'' though this term may also refer to white rice in general), [[parboiled rice|parboiled]], or processed into [[flour]]. The white rice may also be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lost during the milling process. While the cheapest method of enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that will easily wash off (in the United States, rice which has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directly to the grain, coating the grain with a water insoluble substance which is resistant to washing. [[Image:Rice-fields-Indonesia-(Java).jpg|thumb|Terraced rice paddy on a hillslope]]
While washing is counter-productive for powder-enriched rice, it is absolutely necessary when talc-coated rice is used, not least because of concerns about the negative health effects of talc consumption and possibility of asbestos accompanying the talc.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomach cancer), talc-coated rice remains the norm in some countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, but it has been banned in some and is no longer widely used in others such as the United States. Even where talc is not used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be used to improve the appearance of the grains; for this reason, many rice lovers still recommend washing all rice in order to create a better-tasting rice with a better consistency, despite the recommendation of suppliers. Much of the rices produced today are in fact water polished.
[[Rice bran]], called ''nuka'' in [[Japan]], is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily inner layer which is heated to produce an oil. It is also used in making a kind of [[tsukemono|pickled]] vegetable.
The raw rice may be ground into [[flour]] for many uses, including making many kinds of [[beverage]]s such as [[amazake]], [[horchata]], [[rice milk]], and [[sake]]. Rice flour is generally safe for people on a [[gluten-free diet]]. Rice may also be made into various types of [[noodle]]s. Raw wild or brown rice may also be consumed by raw foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually 1 week to 30 days).
The processed rice seeds are usually boiled or steamed to make them edible, after which they may be fried in [[cooking oil|oil]] or [[butter]], or beaten in a tub to make [[mochi]].
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Rice, raw | opt1n=Water | opt1v=13 g | kJ=1506 | protein=7 g | fat=0.6 g | carbs=79 g | vitB6_mg=0.15 | right=1}}
Rice, like other [[cereal]] [[caryopsis|grains]], can be ''puffed'' (or ''popped''). This process takes advantage of the grains' [[water]] content and typically involves heating grain pellets in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processing pre-puffed pellets in a low-[[pressure]] chamber. The [[ideal gas law]] means that either lowering the local pressure or raising the water [[temperature]] results in an increase in [[volume]] prior to water [[evaporation]], resulting in a puffy [[texture]].
==Cooking==
{{selfref|See [[:Category:Rice dishes]] and [[wikibooks:Cookbook:Rice Recipes|Wikibooks' Rice Recipes]] for information on food preparation using rice.}}
[[Image:Rice p1160004.jpg|thumb|Uncooked pre-steamed long rice]]
Rice is cooked by [[boiling]] or [[steaming]]. It can be cooked in just enough water to cook it through (the absorption method), or it can be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving (the rapid-boil method). Electric [[rice cooker]]s, which are popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice.
Rice may also be made into [[Congee|rice porridge]] by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water to the point that it becomes very soft, expanded, and fluffy. Rice porridge is very easy to digest, so it is especially suitable for the sick.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Rice may be soaked prior to cooking, which decreases cooking time. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains.
In some culinary traditions, especially those of [[Latin America]], [[Italy]], and Turkey dry rice grains are [[fried]] in [[oil]] before cooking in water.
In some countries, rice is commonly consumed as [[parboiled rice]]. Also known as easy-cook rice. Parboiled rice is subjected to a steaming or parboiling process while still a brown rice. This causes nutrients from the outer husk to move into the grain itself. The parboil process causes a gelatisisation of the starch in the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the colour of the milled grain changes from white to yellow. The rice is then dried, and can then be milled as usual or consumed as brown rice. Milled parboil rice is nutritionally superior to standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has an additional benefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking as happens when cooking regular white rice.
A nutritionally superior method of preparing brown rice known as '''GABA Rice''' or GBR (Germinated Brown Rice)<ref>Shoichi Ito and Yukihiro Ishikawa Tottori University, Japan. {{cite web | title=(Marketing of Value-Added Rice Products in Japan: Germinated Grown Rice and Rice Bread.) | url=http://www.hatsuga.com/DOMER/english/en/GBRRB.html | accessdate=February 12 | accessyear=2004 }}</ref> may be used. This involves soaking washed brown rice for 20 hours in warm water (38 [[degree Celsius|°C]] or 100 [[degree Fahrenheit|°F]]) prior to cooking it. This process stimulates [[germination]], which [[activator|activates]] various [[enzymes]] in the rice. By this method, a result of research carried out for the [[United Nations]] Year of Rice, it is possible to obtain a more complete [[amino acid]] profile, including [[GABA]].
== Production History ==
===Etymology===
It is widely accepted that the term Rice comes from the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word for rice ''Arisi''. According to ''[[Encarta|Microsoft Encarta Dictionary]]'' (2004) and to ''[[Chambers Dictionary of Etymology]]'' (1988), the word ''rice'' has an [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] origin. It came to [[English language|English]] from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''óryza'', via [[Latin]] ''oriza'', [[Italian language|Italian]] ''riso'' and finally [[Old French]] ''ris'' (the same as present day [[French language|French]] ''riz'').
<br>The same Tamil origin produced the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''ar-ruzz'', from which the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''arroz'' originated.
[[Orzo]], a pasta shaped like small grains of rice, presumably gets its name from the Latin ''oriza''.
===Genetic History===
[[Image:RiceCloseUp.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Japan]]ese short-grain rice]]
Two species of rice were [[domesticated]], Asian rice (''O. sativa'') and African rice (''O. glaberrima''). According to Londo and Chiang, ''O. sativa'' appears to have been domesticated from wild (Asian) rice, ''Oryza rufipogon'' around the [[foothills]] of the [[Himalayas]], with ''O. sativa'' var. ''indica'' on the [[India]]n side and ''O. sativa'' var. ''japonica'' on the Chinese and [[Japan]]ese side<ref>J.P. Londo, Y. Chiang et al, "Phylogeography of Asian wild rice, Oryza rufipogon, reveals multiple independent domestications of cultivated rice, Oryza sativa", PNAS 103(25):9578–83, 2006 ([http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0603152103v1])</ref>.
There are three groups of ''Oryza sativa'' cultivars: the short-grained "japonica" or "sinica" varieties, exemplifie
d by [[Japanese rice]]; the long-grained "[[indica]]" varieties, exemplified by [[Basmati rice]]; and the broad-grained "javonica" varieties, which thrive under tropical conditions (Zohary and Hopf, 2000). The earliest find site for the javonica variety, dated to the fifth millennium BC, was in the earliest phases of the [[Hemudu culture]] on the south side of [[Hangzhou Bay]] in [[China]], but was found along with japonica types.
=== Continental East Asia ===
Z. Zhao, a Chinese [[paleoethnobotany|palaeoethnobotanist]], hypothesizes that people of the [[Late Pleistocene]] began to collect wild rice. Zhao explains that the collection of wild rice from an early date eventually led to its domestication and then the exclusive use of domesticated rice strains by circa 6400 B.C. at the latest <ref>Zhao, Z. 1998. The Middle Yangtze Region in China is the Place Where Rice was Domesticated: Phytolithic Evidence from the Diaotonghuan Cave, Northern Jiangxi. ''Antiquity'' 72:885–897.</ref>. Stone tool evidence from the Yunchanyan site in [[Hunan]] province suggests the possibility that Early [[Neolithic]] groups cultivated rice as early as circa 9000 B.C. <ref>Crawford, G.W. and C. Shen. 1998. The Origins of Rice Agriculture: Recent Progress in East Asia. ''Antiquity'' 72:858–866.</ref>. Crawford and Shen point out that calibrated radiocarbon dates show that direct evidence of the earliest cultivated rice is no older than 7000 B.C. [[Jared Diamond]], a biologist and popular science author, summarizes some of the work done by professional archaeologists mentioned above and estimates that the earliest attested domestication of rice took place in China by 7500 B.C.<ref>{{cite book | last = Diamond | first = Jared | authorlink = Jared Diamond | year = 1999 | title = Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies | publisher = W.W. Norton & Company | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-393-31755-2}}</ref>
One early findspot of rice from [[Pengtoushan]] in the [[Hupei]] basin was dated by AMS radiocarbon techniques to 6400–5800 BC (Zohary and Hopf 2000), but most of the Neolithic sites in China with finds of charred rice and radiocarbon dates are from 5000 BC or later (Crawford and Shen 1998). This evidence leads most archaeologists to say that large-scale dry-land rice farming began between 5000 and 4500 BC in the area of [[Yangtze Delta]] (for example [[Hemudu culture]], discovered in 1970s), and the wet-rice cultivation began at approximately 2500 BC in the same area ([[Liangzhu culture]]). It is now commonly thought that some areas such as the alluvial plains in [[Shaoxing]] and [[Ningbo]] in [[Zhejiang]] province are the cradle-lands of East Asian rice cultivation. Finally, ancient textual evidence of the cultivation of rice in China dates to 3000 years ago.
=== South Asia ===
Wild rice appeared in the Belan and [[Ganges]] valley regions of [[northern India]] as early as 4530 BC and 5440 BC respectively. Agricultural activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the [[Kashmir]] and mature [[Harappa|Harrappan -Pakistan]] regions.<ref>Sorghum: Origin, History, Technology, and Production By C. Wayne Smith.Published 2000. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471242373</ref> Mixed farming was the basis of [[Indus valley]] economy. Farmers planted their crops in integrated fields. Rice, grown on the west coast, was cultivated in the Indus valley.<ref>World History: Societies of the Past / Charles Kahn ... [et Al.] By Charles Kahn.Published 2005. Portage & Main Press. ISBN 1553790456. pg 92</ref> Rice, alongwith barley, meat, dairy products and fish constituted the dietary staple of the ancient [[Dravidian people]].<ref>Food Culture in India By Colleen Taylor. Sen. Published 2004. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313324875</ref>
There is mention of ApUpa, Puro-das and Odana (rice-gruel) in the [[Rig Veda]], terms that refer to rice dishes,<ref>Cf. Talageri (2000) [[Shrikant G. Talageri|Talageri, Shrikant]]: [[The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis]], 2000. ISBN 81-7742-010-0</ref> The rigvedic commentator [[Sayana]] refers to '
'"tandula"'' when commenting on RV 1.16.2., which means rice.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106). With reference to Sontakke and Kashikar, 1983</ref> The Rigvedic term ''dhana'' (dhanaa, dhanya) means rice.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106).</ref> Both [[Charaka]] and [[Sushruta]] mention rice in detail.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106).</ref> The [[Arthasastra]] discusses aspects of rice cultivation.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106).</ref> The ''Kashyapiyakrishisukti'' by [[Kashyapa]] is the most detailed ancient Sanskrit text on rice cultivation.<ref>Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106).</ref>
=== Korean peninsula and Japanese archipelago ===
[[Image:Riziere Oki.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hiroshige|Utagawa Hiroshige]], ''Rice field in Oki province, view of O-Yama''.]]
In 2003 archaeologists alleged that they discovered burnt grains (domesticated rice) in Soro-ri, Korea, that predate the oldest grains in China. This find potentially challenges the mainstream explanation that domesticated rice originated in China.<ref>Cf. BBC news (2003) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3207552.stm]</ref> Unfortunately, the media reports of the Soro-ri charred grains are brief and lack sufficient detail for archaeologists and other scientists to properly evaluate the true meaning of this unusual find.
Reliable, mainstream archaeological evidence derived from palaeoethnobotanical investigations indicate that dry-land rice was introduced to [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] some time between [[3500 BC|3500]] and [[1200 BC]]. The cultivation of rice in Korea and Japan during that time occurred on a small-scale, fields were impermanent plots, and evidence shows that in some cases domesticated and wild grains were planted together. The technological, subsistence, and social impact of rice and grain cultivation is not evident in archaeological data until after [[1500 BC]]. For example, intensive wet-[[paddy field|paddy]] rice agriculture was introduced into Korea shortly before or during the Middle [[Mumun Pottery Period]] (c. 850–550 BC) and reached Japan by the Final Jōmon or Initial [[Yayoi]] circa [[300 BC]] <ref>Crawford, G.W. and G.-A. Lee. 2003. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. ''Antiquity'' 77(295):87–95.</ref><ref>Crawford and Shen 1998</ref>.
===Africa===
African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between [[1500 BC|1500]] and [[800 BC]], ''O. glaberrima'' propagated from its original centre, the [[Niger River]] [[river delta|delta]], and extended to [[Senegal]]. However, it never developed far from its original region. Its cultivation even declined in favour of the Asian species, possibly brought to the African [[continent]] by Arabs coming from the east coast between the [[7th century|7th]] and [[11th century|11th]] centuries CE.
===Near East and Europe===
According to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), ''O. sativa'' was introduced to the [[Middle East]] in [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] times, and was familiar to both Greek and Roman writers. They report that a large sample of rice grains was recovered from a grave at [[Susa]] in [[Iran]] (dated to the first century AD) at one end of the ancient world, while at the same time rice was grown in the [[Po River|Po]] valley in Italy. However, [[Pliny the Elder]] writes that rice (''oryza'') is grown only in "Egypt, Syria, Cilicia, Asia Minor and Greece" (''[[Natural History (Pliny)|N.H.]]'' 18.19). The [[Moors]] brought it to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] when they conquered it in [[711]]. After the middle of the [[15th century]], rice spread throughout [[Italy]] and then [[France]], later propagating to all the continents during the great age of European exploration.
===The Americas===
In 1694, rice arrived in [[South Caroli
na]], probably originating from [[Madagascar]]. The Spanish brought rice to [[South America]] at the beginning of the [[18th century]].
In the [[United States]], [[colonial]] South Carolina and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] grew and amassed great [[wealth]] from the [[Slavery|slave]] labour obtained from the [[Senegambia (geography)|Senegambia]] area of [[West Africa]]. At the [[port]] of Charleston, through which 40% of all American slave imports passed, slaves from this region of [[Africa]] brought the highest prices, in recognition of their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was put to use on the many rice [[plantation]]s around [[Georgetown, South Carolina|Georgetown]], [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], and [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]]. From the slaves, plantation owners learned how to dyke the [[marsh]]es and periodically flood the fields. At first the rice was milled by hand with [[wood]]en paddles, then winnowed in [[sweetgrass]] [[basket]]s (the making of which was another skill brought by the slaves). The invention of the rice [[mill (factory)|mill]] increased profitability of the crop, and the addition of water power for the mills in 1787 by [[millwright]] [[Jonathan Lucas]] was another step forward. Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less [[profit]]able with the loss of slave labour after the [[American Civil War]], and it finally died out just after the turn of the [[20th century]]. The predominant strain of rice in the Carolinas was from Africa and was known as "Carolina Gold." The [[cultivar]] has been preserved and there are current attempts to reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop.<ref>http://www.carolinagoldricefoundation.org/ Carolina Gold Rice Foundation</ref>
References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unrelated [[Wild rice|''Zizania palustris'']]
===Australia===
Although attempts to grow rice in the well-watered north of Australia have been made for many years, they have consistently failed because of inherent [[iron]] and [[manganese]] toxicities in the soils and destruction by [[pest]]s.
Australia south of the nineteenth parallel has no water source adequate for rice cultivation. Nevertheless, in the [[1920s]] it was seen as a possible [[irrigation in Australia|irrigation]] crop on soils within the [[Murray-Darling Basin]] that were too heavy for the cultivation of fruit and too infertile for [[wheat]]<ref>Wadham, Sir Samuel; Wilson, R. Kent and Wood, Joyce; '''Land Utilization in Australia''', 3rd ed. Published 1957 by Melbourne University Press; p. 246</ref>.
Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runoff of temperate Australia, was (and remains) very cheap, the growing of rice was taken up by agricultural groups over the following decades. Californian varieties of rice were found suitable for the climate in the [[Riverina]], and the first mill opened at [[Leeton, New South Wales|Leeton]] in [[1951]].
Even before this Australia's rice production greatly exceeded local needs<ref>Ibid.</ref>, and rice exports to Japan have become a major source of foreign currency. Above-average rainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s<ref>Australian Bureau of Meteorology; '''Climatic Atlas of Australia: Rainfall'''; published 2000 by Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, Victoria</ref> encouraged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but its prodigous water use in a practically waterless region began to attract the attention of environmental scientists. These became severely concerned with declining flow in the [[Snowy River]] and the lower [[Murray River]].
Although rice growing in Australia is exceedingly efficient and highly profitable due to the cheapness of land, several recent years of severe drought have led many to call for its elimination because of its effects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosystems. Politicians, however, have not made any plan to reduce rice growing in southern Australia.
== Gene modification ==
=== Ventria rice with human proteins ===
Rice was modified to [[gene expression|express]] [[lactoferrin]], [[lysozyme]], [[hum
an serum albumin]] which are [[protein]]s that are usually found in [[breast milk]] and have antiviral, bacterial, fungal effects as [[Ventria Bioscience|Ventria]] declares.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070514/full/070514-17.html#B1 Nature's story]
</ref>
The purpose of the [[gene modification]] of rice is to use the resulting [[seed]]s in making of drinks that can cure [[diarrhoea]] and dietary supplements to help reverse [[anaemia]]
<ref>Bethell D. R., Huang J., et al. BioMetals, 17. 337 - 342 (2004).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?holding=npg&cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15222487&dopt=Abstract]</ref>
== World production and trade ==
[[Image:2005rice_%28paddy%29.PNG|thumb|right|Paddy rice output in 2005]]
{| class="wikitable" align="left" style="clear:left"
! colspan=2|Top Paddy Rice Producers — 2005<br>(million metric ton)
|-
| {{CHN}} || align="right" | 182
|-
| {{IND}} || align="right" | 137
|-
| {{IDN}} || align="right" | 54
|-
| {{BAN}} || align="right" | 40
|-
| {{VNM}} || align="right" | 36
|-
| {{THA}} || align="right" | 27
|-
| {{MMR}} || align="right" | 25
|-
|{{PAK}} || align="right" | 18
|-
| {{PHI}} || align="right" | 15
|-
| {{BRA}} || align="right" | 13
|-
|{{JPN}} || align="right" | 11
|-
|'''World Total''' || align="right" | '''700'''
|-
|colspan=2|''Source: <br>[[UN Food & Agriculture Organisation]] (FAO)''[http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops.Primary&Domain=Production&servlet=1&hasbulk=0&version=ext&language=EN]
|}
World production of rice<ref>all figures from UNCTAD 1998–2002 and the [http://www.irri.org/science/ricestat/index.asp International Rice Research Institute] statistics (accessed September 2005)</ref> has risen steadily from about 200 million tons of paddy rice in 1960 to 600 million tons in 2004. Milled rice is about 68% of paddy rice by weight. In the year 2004, the top three producers were China (26% of world production), India (20%), and Indonesia (9%).
World trade figures are very different, as only about 5–6% of rice produced is traded internationally. The largest three exporting countries are [[Thailand]] (26% of world exports), [[Vietnam]] (15%), and the [[United States]] (11%), while the largest three importers are Indonesia (14%), Bangladesh (4%), and Brazil (3%).
Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia, for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used for rice production (see ''The Burning of the Rice'' by Don Puckridge for the story of rice production in Cambodia [http://sidharta.com/books/index.jsp?uid=67]).
==Rice pests==
{{Main|List of rice diseases}}
Rice pests are any [[organisms]] or [[microbes]] with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of rice seeds)<ref>Jahn et al. 2000</ref> (Jahn et al 2007). Rice pests include [[weed]]s, [[pathogen]]s, [[insect]]s, [[rodent]]s, and [[bird]]s. A variety of factors can contribute to pest outbreaks, including the overuse of [[pesticides]] and high rates of [[nitrogen fertilizer]] application (e.g. Jahn et al. 2005)[http://docserver.esa.catchword.org/deliver/cw/pdf/esa/freepdfs/0046225x/v34n4s26.pdf]. Weather conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to follow high rainfall early in the wet season, while [[thrip]]s outbreaks are associated with drought ([http://www.aciar.gov.au/web.nsf/att/ACIA-6Y2342/$file/Rice%20In%20Laos%20chapter%2016-25.pdf Douangboupha et al. 2006]).
One of the challenges facing crop protection specialists is to develop rice pest management techniques which are sustainable. In other words, to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened (Jahn et al. 2001). Rice pests are managed by cultural techniques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and [[pesticide]]s (which include [[insecticide]]). Increasingly, there is evidence that farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary (Jahn et al. [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/docs/pestMgmtCamLoLnd.pdf 1996], [http://www.petrra-irri.org/html/
sp_doc_download.asp?doc_id=105 2004a,b)] [http://www.scidev.net/Features/index.cfm?fuseaction=readfeatures&itemid=306&language=1][http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.wmv][http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.rm]. By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice pests (Jahn 1992), misuse of insecticides can actually lead to pest outbreaks (Cohen et al. 1994). Botanicals, so-called “natural pesticides”, are used by some farmers in an attempt to control rice pests, but in general the practice is not common. Upland rice is grown without standing water in the field. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodia spread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (''Chromolaena odorata'' (L.)) over the surface of fields after planting. The practice probably helps the soil retain moisture and thereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claim the leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weed and insect infestations (Jahn et al. 1999).
Among rice cultivars there are differences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage ([http://titania.esa.catchword.org/vl=10988418/cl=24/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/00220493/v97n6/s20/p1923 Jahn et al. 2004c], Khiev et al. 2000). Therefore, particular cultivars are recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems. Major rice pests include the brown [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_planthoppers.pdf planthopper][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_planthopper] (Preap et al. 2006), [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_armyworms.pdf armyworms][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_armyworm], [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_glh.pdf the green leafhopper,] the rice gall midge (Jahn and Khiev 2004), the [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_riceBug.pdf rice bug] [http://titania.esa.catchword.org/vl=10988418/cl=24/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/00220493/v97n6/s20/p1923 (Jahn et al. 2004c)], hispa (Murphy et al. 2006), [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_riceLeafFolder.pdf the rice leaffolder], [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_stemBorer.pdf stemborer,] rats (Leung et al 2002), and the weed ''Echinochloa crusgali'' (Pheng et al. 2001). Major rice diseases include [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ricedoctor_mx/Fact_Sheets/Diseases/Rice_Ragged_Stunt.htm Rice Ragged Stunt], [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Diseases/fs_sheathBlight.pdf Sheath Blight] and [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Diseases/fs_tungro.pdf Tungro.] [[Rice blast]], caused by the [[fungus]] ''Magnaporthe grisea'', is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation.
==Cultivars==
{{main|List of rice varieties}}
The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the [[International Rice Research Institute]] ([http://www.irri.org/ IRRI]), with over 100,000 rice accessions [http://www.irri.org/media/press/press.asp?id=1] held in the International Rice Genebank [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9291960&dopt=Abstract]. Rice [[cultivar]]s are often classified by their grain shapes and texture. For example, Thai [[Jasmine rice]] is long-grain and relatively less sticky, as long-grain rice contains less [[amylopectin]] than short-grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants usually serve long-grain as plain unseasoned steamed rice. Japanese [[mochigome|mochi rice]] and Chinese [[sticky rice]] are short-grain. Chinese people use sticky rice which is properly known as "glutinous rice" (note: glutinous refer to the glue-like characteristic of rice; does not refer to "gluten") to make [[zongzi]]. The [[Japanese rice|Japanese table rice]] is a sticky, short-grain rice. Japanese [[sake]] rice is another kind as well.
Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic [[Basmati]] (grown in the North), long and medium-grained [[Patna rice]] and short-grained Masoori. In South India the most prized cultivar is 'ponni' which is primarily grown in the delta regions of [[Kaveri]] River. [[Kaveri]] is also referred to as ponni in the South and the name reflects the geographic region where it is grown. Rice in [[East India]] and [[South India]], is usually prepared by boiling the rice in large pans immediately after harvesting and before removing the husk; this is referred to in English as ''[[parboiled rice]]''. It is then dried, and the husk removed later. It often displays small red speckles, and has a smoky flavour from the fires. Usually coarser rice is used for this procedure. It helps to retain the natural vitamins and kill any [[fungus|fungi]] or other contaminants, but leads to an odour which some find peculiar. This rice is easier on the stomach to digest.{{Fact|date=July 2007}} In [[South India]], it is also used to make [[idli]]s. In the Western Indian state of [[Maharashtra]], a short grain variety called [[Ambemohar]] is very popular. this rice has a characteristic fragrance of Mango blossom.
[[Image:Brown rice.jpg|thumb|Brown Rice]]
[[Image:sona-masuri.jpg|right|thumb|Polished Indian [[sona masuri]] rice.]]
Aromatic rices have definite aromas and flavours; the most noted cultivars are [[Thai fragrant rice]], Basmati, Patna rice, and a [[hybrid]] cultivar from America sold under the trade name, [[Texmati]]. It is a cross between Basmati and American long-grained rice that is creating great controversy.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Both Basmati and Texmati have a mild [[popcorn]]-like aroma and flavour. In Indonesia there are also ''red'' and ''black'' cultivars.
High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in [[Africa]] and other dry [[ecosystem]]s called the [[New Rice for Africa|new rice for Africa]] (NERICA) cultivars have been developed. It is hoped that their cultivation will improve [[food security]] in [[West Africa]].
Scientists are working on so-called ''[[golden rice]]'' which is genetically modified to produce beta [[carotene]], the precursor to [[vitamin A]].
Draft [[genome]]s for the two most common rice cultivars, ''indica'' and ''japonica'', were published in April 2002. Rice was chosen as a [[model organism]] for the biology of grasses because of its relatively small genome (~430 mega[[base pair]]s). Rice was the first crop with a complete genome sequence.<ref>{{cite news | last=Gillis | first=Justing | title=Rice Genome Fully Mapped | date=August 11, 2005 | publisher=washingtonpost.com | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/10/AR2005081001054.html?referrer=email }}</ref> Basmati rice is the oldest, common [[progenitor]] for most types.
On [[December 16]], [[2002]], the [[UN General Assembly]] declared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. The declaration was sponsored by more than 40 countries.
==See also==
[[Image:US long grain rice.jpg|right|thumb|American long-grain rice]]
[[Image:Hinohikari.jpg|thumb|Japanese short-grain rice]]
* [[Beaten rice]]
* [[Bhutanese red rice]]
* [[Black rice]]
* [[Brown rice syrup]]
* [[Forbidden rice]]
* [[Inari (god)|Inari]]
* [[Indonesian rice table]]
* [[List of rice dishes]]
* [[List of rice varieties]]
* [[New Rice for Africa]]
* [[Protein per unit area]]
* [[Puffed rice]]
* [[Red rice]]
* [[Rice Belt]]
* [[Rice bran oil]]
* [[Rice wine]]
* [[Riceland Foods]]
* [[System of rice intensification]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}
== References ==
*Cohen, J. E., K. Schoenly, K. L. Heong, H. Justo, G. Arida, A. T. Barrion, J. A. Litsinger. 1994. A Food Web Approach to Evaluating the Effect of Insecticide Spraying on Insect Pest Population Dynamics in a Philippine Irrigated Rice Ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 747–763. doi:10.2307/2404165
*Crawford, G.W. and C. Shen. 1998. The Origins of Rice Agriculture: Recent Progress in East Asia. Antiquity 72:858–866.
*Crawford, G.W. and G.-A. Lee. 2003. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. Antiquity 77(295):87–95.
*Douangboupha, B., K. Khamphoukeo
, S. Inthavong, J. Schiller, and G. Jahn. 2006. Pests and diseases of the rice production systems of Laos. Pp. 265–281. In J.M. Schiller, M.B. Chanphengxay, B. Linquist, and S. Appa Rao, editors. Rice in Laos. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 457 p. ISBN 978-971-22-0211-7.
*Heong, KL, YH Chen, DE Johnson, GC Jahn, M Hossain, RS Hamilton. 2005. Debate Over a GM Rice Trial in China. Letters. Science, Vol 310, Issue 5746, 231–233 , 14 October 2005.
*Huang, J., Ruifa Hu, Scott Rozelle, Carl Pray. 2005. Insect-Resistant GM Rice in Farmers' Fields: Assessing Productivity and Health Effects in China. Science (29 April 2005) Vol. 308. no. 5722, pp. 688–690. DOI: 10.1126/science.1108972
*Jahn, G. C. 1992. Rice pest control and effects on predators in Thailand. Insecticide & Acaricide Tests 17:252–253.
*Jahn, GC and B. Khiev. 2004. Gall midge in Cambodian lowland rice. pp. 71–76. In J. Benett, JS Bentur, IC Pasula, K. Krishnaiah, [eds]. New approaches to gall midge resistance in rice. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute and Indian Council of Agricultural Research. 195 p.
*Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, B. Khiev, and C. Pol. 1996. Farmers’ pest management and rice production practices in Cambodian lowland rice. Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project (CIAP), Baseline Survey Report No. 6. CIAP Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 28 pages. [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/docs/pestMgmtCamLoLnd.pdf]
*Jahn, G. C., B. Khiev, S. Pheng, and C. Pol. 1997. Pest management in rice. In H. J. Nesbitt [ed.] "Rice Production in Cambodia." Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 83–91.
*Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, B. Khiev, and C. Pol. 1997. Pest management practices of lowland rice farmers in Cambodia. In K. L. Heong and M. M. Escalada [editors] "Pest Management Practices of Rice Farmers in Asia." Manila (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 35–52. ISBN 971-22-0102-3
*Jahn, G. C., C. Pol, B. Khiev, S. Pheng, and N. Chhorn. 1999. Farmer’s pest management and rice production practices in Cambodian upland and deepwater rice. Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project, Baseline Survey Report No. 7.[http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/docs/pestManDeepUplandCambodia.pdf]
*Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, B. Khiev and C. Pol 2000. Ecological characterization of biotic constraints to rice in Cambodia. International Rice Research Notes (IRRN) 25 (3): 23–24.
*Jahn, G. C., S. Pheng, C. Pol, B. Khiev 2000. Characterizing biotic constraints to production of Cambodian rainfed lowland rice: limitations to statistical techniques. pp. 247–268 In T. P. Tuong, S. P. Kam, L. Wade, S. Pandey, B. A. M. Bouman, B. Hardy [eds.] “Characterizing and Understanding Rainfed Environments.” Proceedings of the International Workshop on Characterizing and Understanding Rainfed Environments, 5–9 Dec. 1999, Bali, Indonesia. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). 488 p.
*Jahn, GC, B. Khiev, C. Pol, N. Chhorn, S. Pheng, and V. Preap. 2001. Developing sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia. pp. 243–258, In S. Suthipradit, C. Kuntha, S. Lorlowhakarn, and J. Rakngan [eds.] “Sustainable Agriculture: Possibility and Direction” Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Conference on Sustainable Agriculture 18–20 October 1999, Phitsanulok, Thailand. Bangkok (Thailand): National Science and Technology Development Agency. 386 p.
*Jahn, GC, NQ Kamal, S Rokeya, AK Azad, NI Dulu, JB Orsini, A Barrion, and L Almazan. 2004a. Completion Report on Livelihood Improvement Through Ecology (LITE), PETRRA IPM Subproject SP 27 02. Poverty Elimination Through Rice Research Assistance (PETRRA), IRRI, Dhaka. 20 pages text plus 20 pages appendices. [http://www.petrra-irri.org/html/sp_doc_download.asp?doc_id=105]
*Jahn, GC, NQ Kamal, S Rokeya, AK Azad, NI Dulu, JB Orsini, M Morshed, NMS Dhar, NA Kohinur 2004b. Evaluation Report on Livelihood Improvement Through Ecology (LITE), PETRRA IPM Subproject SP 27 02. Poverty Elimination Through Rice Research Assistanc
e (PETRRA), IRRI, Dhaka. 42 pages plus 40 pages of annexes.[http://www.petrra-irri.org/html/sp_doc_download.asp?doc_id=106]
*Jahn, GC, I. Domingo, L. P. Almazan and J. Pacia. 2004c. Effect of rice bugs (Alydidae: Leptocorisa oratorius (Fabricius)) on rice yield, grain quality, and seed viability. Journal of Economic Entomology 97(6): 1923–1927.[http://docserver.esa.catchword.org/deliver/cw/pdf/esa/freepdfs/00220493/v97n6s20.pdf]
*Jahn, GC, LP Almazan, and J Pacia. 2005. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, ''Hysteroneura setariae'' (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.). Environmental Entomology 34 (4): 938–943.[http://docserver.esa.catchword.org/deliver/cw/pdf/esa/freepdfs/0046225x/v34n4s26.pdf]
*Jahn, GC, JA Litsinger, Y Chen and A Barrion. 2007. Integrated Pest Management of Rice: Ecological Concepts. In Ecologically Based Integrated Pest Management (eds. O. Koul and G.W. Cuperus). CAB International Pp. 315–366.
*Khiev, B., G. C. Jahn, C. Pol, and N. Chhorn 2000. Effects of simulated pest damage on rice yields. IRRN 25 (3): 27–28.
*Leung LKP, Peter G. Cox, Gary C. Jahn and Robert Nugent. 2002. Evaluating rodent management with Cambodian rice farmers. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture Vol. 5, pp. 21–26.
*Murphy, S, J Stonehouse, J Holt, J Venn, NQ Kamal, MF Rabbi, MH Haque, G Jahn, B Barrion. 2006. Ecology and management of rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera) in Bangladesh. Pp. 162––164. In Perspectives on Pests II: Achievements of research under UK Department for International Development, Crop Protection Programme 2000–05. Natural Resources International Limited. 206 pages. [http://www.cpp.uk.com/outputs.asp?step=5&pid=63]
*Pheng, S., B. Khiev, C. Pol and G. C. Jahn 2001. Response of two rice cultivars to the competition of ''Echinochloa crus-gali'' (L.) P. Beauv. International Rice Research Institute Notes (IRRN) 26 (2): 36–37.
*Preap V., M. P. Zalucki and G. C. Jahn. 2006. Brown planthopper outbreaks and management. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture 7(1): 17–25.
*Preap, V, GC Jahn, K Hin, N Siheng. 2005. Fish and rice management system to enable agricultural diversification. Paper presented at the 5th Asia-Pacific Congress of Entomology, 18–21 Oct. 2005, Jeju, Korea.
*Rice Research in South Asia through Ages by Y L Nene, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106) [http://www.agri-history.org/pdf/R-r.pdf]
*Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, ''Domestication of plants in the Old World'', third edition Oxford: University Press, 2000.
*Zhao, Z. 1998. The Middle Yangtze Region in China is the Place Where Rice was Domesticated: Phytolithic Evidence from the Diaotonghuan Cave, Northern Jiangxi. Antiquity 72:885–897.
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
{{wiktionary}}
{{commons|Rice}}
===General===
* [http://www.faohi.org/rice2004/index_en.htm 2004: International Year of Rice]
* [http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/rice/characteristics.htm Infocomm/UNCTAD]
* [http://www.irri.org/ International Rice Research Institute]
* [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ Rice Knowledge Bank]
* [http://www.plantcultures.org.uk/plants/rice_landing.html Plant Cultures: botany, history and uses of rice]
* [http://www.guidetothailand.com/thailand-history/rice.htm A Brief History of Rice]
* [http://www.agri-history.org/pdf/R-r.pdf Rice Research in South Asia through Ages] ([[PDF]])
===Rice research===
*[http://www.irri.org/publications/irrn/ International Rice Research Notes]
*[http://sidharta.com/books/index.jsp?uid=190 '''Fredenburg, P. and B. Hill. 2006.''' ''Sharing Rice for Peace and Prosperity in the Greater Mekong Subregion.'' Sid Harta Publishers, Victoria. ISBN 1-921206-08-X. pp271.]
*[http://www.irri.org/publications/today/pdfs/4-1/12-17.pdf Intensify to Diversify: a rice intensification project in Cambodia]
* [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalSites/cambodia/ipmCambodiaProject/ipmCambodiaProject.htm Report on development of IPM for rice program in Cambodia]
===Rice in agriculture===
* [http://www.apsnet.org/online/common/names/rice.asp
American Phytopathological Society: Diseases of Rice (''Oryza sativa'')]
* [http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/afris/Data/312.HTM FAO: Animal Feed Resources Information System, Oryza sativa]
* [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/commonpests/CommonPests.htm International Rice Research Institute: Common Insect Pests of Rice]
* [http://www.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Rice/papers/zhimin99.htm Origin of Chinese rice cultivation]
*[http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factSheets/HowToGrowRice/fs_riceFish.pdf Rice-fish systems].
===Rice pests and diseases===
*[http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_glh.pdf Green Leafhopper]
*Stemborer [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Insects/fs_stemBorer.pdf in English] [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalsites/indonesia/PDF%20files/stemborer%20Ind.pdf in Indonesian]
*[http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Diseases/fs_sheathBlight.pdf Sheath Blight]
*Tungro [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/factsheets/HowToGrowRice/Pest_Management/Diseases/fs_tungro.pdf in English] [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/regionalsites/indonesia/PDF%20files/tungro%20Ind.pdf in Indonesian]
===Rice as food===
* [http://chinesefood.about.com/od/chinesecookingbasics/ss/cook_rice_photo.htm How to Cook Rice Step-by-Step Photos]
* [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=6676983 US Patent 6,676,983: Puffed food starch product]
* [http://www.beabree.com/2007-06/rice-again-how-to-save-a-bad-batch-of-rice-and-other-tips/ How to Save a Bad Batch of Rice and Other Tips]
===Rice economics===
* [http://www.crnindia.com/commodity/rice.html Rice as a Commodity]
* [http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/rice/market.htm UNCTAD market information]
* [http://www.freetrade.org/node/539 Grain Drain: The Hidden Cost of U.S. Rice Subsidies]
* [http://www.rice.com.vn/ Vietnamese Rice Website]
===Rice genome===
* [[n:Chinese authorities question genetically altered rice allegation]]
* [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Projets/Projet_CC/organisme_CC.html Oryza sativa The rice genome, a "Rosetta stone" for other cereals]
* [http://rgp.dna.affrc.go.jp/ Rice Genome Research Program]
* [http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030047 Rice Genome Approaches Completion]
* [http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0030038 The Genomes of Oryza sativa: A History of Duplications]
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/06/060612222106.htm Biologists Trace Back Genetic Origins Of Rice Domestication]
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19125643.900&feedId=online-news_rss20 Waterproof rice can outlast the floods] — Researchers have tracked down a gene that allows the plant to survive complete submersion
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Cereals}}
{{Link GA|zh}}
[[Category:Staple foods]]
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Grasses]]
[[Category:Model organisms]]
[[Category:Rice| ]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Tamil words and phrases]]
