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Planting. This Cyclopedia considers or kinds horticultural work, the growing of plants, and the identifying of plants. The latter purpose runs through every generic entry, throughout the alphabet. The instructions for growing are combined with these generic entries, and are also extended in many separate articles, under the popular names of the plants themselves, as Rose, Strawberry, Carnation, Lettuce, Mushroom, and many others; and they are also displayed in class articles, as Alpine Plants, Kitchen-Gardening, Annuals, Biennials, Perennials, Herbs, Orchids, Palms, Arboriculture, and many others.
At this point, another set of class articles is assembled, with the purpose to bring together such instruction as is commonly associated with what is known as "planting,"—with the use of plants in the open and particularly in relation to their uses as a part of a landscape development. In connection with this symposium, the reader will naturally give special attention to the assembly on Herbs in Vol. III and on Landscape Gardening in Vol. IV. Inasmuch as trees are discussed under Arboriculture and herbaceous plants under Herbs, the present treatment is mostly of shrubs. (Figs. 3001-3005,3011-12, are adapted from "Garden and Forest.")

This symposium on planting has the following parts:
Page
The relation of planting to the fundamental design (Pilat).. . .2657
Village improvement in relation to planting (Waugh) 2658
Shrubbery in the landscape (L. H. B., Simonds) 2660
Woods in the landscape (Manning) 2662
Wild-gardening (Miller) 2663
Bog-gardening (Taylor) 2666
Water-gardening (Tricker) 2668
Subtropical-gardening (Manning) 2669
Plants for the seaside (Manning) 2670
Succulent plants (Thompson) 2672
Topiary planting and garden architecture (Montillon) 2675
Planting for winter effect (Miller) 2677
Planting on walls (Miller) 2680
Screen-planting (Curtis) 2681
Winter protection of planting (Egan, Watson) 2684
Shrubs, small trees, and woody vines (Curtis) 2690
Shrubs for the Middle West (Miller) 2693
Shrubs for street and park planting (Mulford) 2694
Shrubs for midcontinental regions (Irish) 2694
Shrubs and climbers for the South (Berekmans) 2696
Ornamental shrubs for California (Gregg and Stevens) 2700
Vines for California (Gregg, Stevens and Jones) 2705

The relation of planting to the fundamental design.

It is the business of the landscape architect to combine beauty and utility into a harmonious composition. The artistic aim in the practice of landscape architecture is to produce beautiful pictures. To achieve such pictures, the creative imagination must be controlled by familiarity with the accepted canons of design. Good design in landscape work must be based on the fundamental principles of art and the laws of nature. Fitness, proportion, variety, mystery or intricacy, unity, and harmony,—all these must be considered.

While it is the aim, in creating landscape gardens and parks, to produce natural effects, the best results are not necessarily secured by a mere imitation of nature as it happens to exist in a given locality. It is possible to modify nature to fit artificial conditions; and by changing the scale, by adding new features, or making different combinations, compositions may be produced which have all the charm of a natural scene, yet surpass nature in beauty and interest. Varied emotions are produced by different compositions. Sometimes the mood is gay, as in flower-gardens. Awe, wonder, and admiration are produced by the large natural features,— rocks, cliffs, canons, waterfalls, the mountains,and the sea. Mystery and intricacy are conceived by rambles through the dense woods and jungles. Rest, peace, tranquillity are suggested by certain woodland scenes, a sheltered lake, or a meadow with a meandering stream. The sense of deliberation, dignity, and maturity is produced by the stately arched trees of avenue or mall, and by groves of matured trees.

Many laymen and artists think of landscape architecture only as a decorative art; and to their minds planting is of value only in so far as the foliage hides some ugly foundation, softens hard lines or relieves bare spaces, screens some unsightly view or forms a setting for an architectural feature. Sculptors and architects especially are prone to think that the most charming natural parts of our public parks are suitable sites for memorials in stone and statues in marble and bronze. They reason that the spreading branches of the trees and the background of foliage will enhance the beauty of their work of art. Their thought is of their own creation and they fail to realize that by introducing an artificial object, no matter how beautiful it may be in itself, the harmony and beauty of the natural scene may be destroyed.

From the point of view of the landscape architect, planting is not merely a superficial decorative process. He considers the arrangement and disposition of the foliage-masses as well as the modeling of the earth's surfaces to be fundamental in landscape design. Necessary buildings, roads, paths, and other artificial features, must be provided for use and enjoyment; but the best design is the one that succeeds in effectively obscuring or subduing these necessary objects in the landscape and still provides fully the facilities required for use, shelter, and other enjoyments of the people.

While design is the main consideration in creating a landscape, nature, life, and time are necessary for the completion of the design and the full development of its beauty. The beauty of a landscape is dependent largely on the green living things, as trees, shrubs, grass; but the success of the picture is due more to the disposition and arrangement of the material than to the materials themselves. Therefore, it sometimes happens that a thorough knowledge of horticulture, especially when this knowledge is combined with great enthusiasm and, perhaps, with an added interest in botany, is a decided handicap to the success of the amateur designer. The horticultural features are overemphasized at the expense of the composition. Many places and parks that were originally well designed have been robbed of their charm and beauty and landscape effects, because of the interest and enthusiasm on the part of gardeners, owners of estates, or park commissioners in horticultural things. In the conviction that they are embellishing the beauty of a glade, valley, lawn, or meadow, they proceed to cover these open spaces with rare specimens of trees and shrubs, thus destroying the arrangement. Open areas should not be considered as waste space.

A landscape design may be either formal or natural. The character of the planting of formal gardens and terraces and the embellishment of buildings by planting should be in harmony with the type of architecture and with the nature of the site of the garden of the garden and its relation to the house. In the design of a natural landscape, the three general classes of planting material- woods, shrubbery, and lawns or meadows— should intermingle to a certain extent, and yet be so arranged as to present in general an open central feature of lawn or meadow, with the masses of foliage surrounding. This provides unity, and the broad masses of light and shade produce a pleasing composition.

The outlines of the lawn or meadow should be irregular, and their limits somewhat obscured. Now and then trees or groups should be introduced, especially near the boundaries of the lawn, to add diversity and interest; the shadows will relieve the monotonous expanse of light. To design effective plantations, a Knowledge of planting material, a conception of composition, and imagination and taste are requisite.

In planting, the landscape architect is more concerned with the color, texture, form, and size of flowers and foliage than with botanical families or with cultural requirements of plants; still, in order to design places and parks that will be in harmony with the general surroundings and to use material that will thrive, he must be familiar with the indigenous plant material, and know what soil conditions and locations are suitable for their peculiar needs. However, it must not be assumed that only those trees, shrubs, and plants that grow in the immediate vicinity may be used; but, in the creation of the natural landscape, the native plants and trees should predominate.

The most important planting material used by the landscape architect is "grass seed." Ordinarily grass is not considered in the general conception of planting, but most landscape architects and many laymen realize that grass in the form of lawns and meadows is the most significant feature of our naturalistic landscapes. Its value when used within formal lines, the tapis vert and terrace, are generally recognized. It is not far-fetched to say that grass is the most important planting material used in the creation of landscape in this climate.

Lawns and meadows provide color, texture, motion of the waving meadows, the play of light and the shadows of clouds and trees. The covering of grass over earth enhances the beauty of the contours and the modeling of the earth's surfaces—knolls, valleys, glades, and plains. The effects of space, breadth, dignity, and distant views are dependent upon the proper framing of open spaces with foliage. Indeed, open spaces, whether in the form of sea, lakes, or streams, lawns or meadows, sand-dunes or even paved spaces, are one of the most important elements in landscape design. C. F. Pilat.

Village improvement in relation to planting.

Village improvement is a branch of civic art. Civic art in turn may be defined as the conservation, improvement, and utilization of public property. Village improvement thus takes its place alongside of town-planning, country-planning, the development of garden cities, and other work of a similar nature. The public-property test may be rather strictly applied to all branches of civic improvement, including village improvement, for while village improvement does in fact undertake extensive work upon private grounds, this is undertaken solely in the public interest.

In village improvement it is rather important to fix attention upon the village or small town as a permanent unit. For the most part, the small towns of America have had notable ambitions for growth. Each one has intended to grow up into a state capital or a large manufacturing center. On this account it has been impracticable to make intelligent plans for the actual circumstances, that is for an indefinite period of existence without further expansion. The growth problem, while it is largely a psychological factor, is a very important one in connection with village life and development. It is a problem which should be seriously faced. Each community should understand its actual circumstances and its ambitions, if it is to make any real improvement in its condition.

Inasmuch as civic improvement is based upon public property, the scope of its work may be outlined rather strictly by the extent and character of property owned in any community. The more important types of public property, with some discussion of the problems attached to their improvement, are taken up herewith. The illustrations and plans (Figs. 2991-2996) suggest some of the important phases, particularly as related to planting.

Streets.—Streets and public roads constitute perhaps the most important mass of public property in each community. They are absolutely indispensable and have a very high monetary value judged by any scale whatever. Road and street improvement is always looked upon as a practical benefit to the community and may, therefore, naturally and properly become the starting-point of general village improvement. Street improvement should be studied with reference to (a) location, (b) design, (c) construction, (d) furnishings, (e) maintenance. (a) The location of streets and roads is generally looked upon as an inviolable accomplishment, yet many roads and streets can be, and should be relocated, or altogether abandoned. In other places new streets should be provided. (b) Some streets ought to be straight, some ought to be curved, some ought to be wide, some should be narrow. Some should be provided with wide grass verges, with rows of trees and with parkings. In other parts of the village, streets should have no such furnishings. In fact, each street should be made a study by itself, and should be properly designed
for its special conditions, (c) All streets, of course, should be well constructed. Macadam and tarvia are good materials. However, there are many streets which do not need such expensive improvement. The problems of street construction are generally fairly well studied, but of course, final and perfectly satisfactory results are never achieved, (d) Besides the trees in the street, there are many other things to be considered, such as guide-posts, letter-boxes, and especially telephone, electric-light, and trolley poles. All these furnishings should be made as satisfactory as possible. Especially in the matter of poles the ideal is to reduce their number to the minimum, (e) All streets need to be kept in good repair and to be kept clean. These are always important matters, but they cost considerably more care, labor, and money than most persons imagine. Village improvement can nearly always make considerable progress in this one point of keeping the streets clean and in good condition.

Transportation may be reckoned as the second great problem of village improvement. The development of attractive railroad station-grounds, by proper planting of trees, shrubs, and grass is a matter always to be looked after. In rural communities, at the present time, with the large development of trolley service, the design and location of first-class trolley waiting stations becomes a matter of great importance and should receive careful attention.

Schoolhouses and school-grounds constitute a very important type of public property, and every campaign of village improvement should look after them carefully. School-grounds should be kept clean and orderly and should have some tree plantings. Wherever possible there should be grass, but the improvement of school-grounds with flower-beds is almost out of the question. Perhaps the most insistent problem of the improvement of the school-grounds themselves, lies in securing adequate area, which should be from 2 to 5 acres for each school instead of the 1/4 acre commonly allowed.

Playgrounds are very much needed in every village and rural community. The problems connected with them are, (1) to secure the necessary allotment of land; (2) to have this ground properly planned and developed, (3) to have the play properly supervised. The embellishment will consist chiefly of large trees for shade and to improve the appearance. Flower-beds and borders are quite out of place on playgrounds.

Reservations of several sorts are needed in every village. These should be primarily for recreation, but should include also places of historic importance or those of great scenic beauty.

Public buildings, including churches, libraries, grange halls, town halls, and the like, must be of the best character in order to secure proper results in village development. All these public buildings should be studied with reference to adaptation to use, proper location, grouping with other public buildings, good architectural design, and substantial construction. The grounds about these public buildings should be developed to the best possible advantage. As a rule, shady lawns with good substantial trees give the best result.

Home-grounds are of prime significance in every community and every village-improvement society should undertake to secure the best treatment of them possible. Neighborhood competitions are useful to this end but sound horticultural instruction is always necessary.

The more strictly horticultural phases of village improvement, therefore, are the planting and care of trees, the development of grass areas, especially lawns, home-garden improvement with some emphasis upon front yards, and school-garden enterprises of several sorts.

In the care of trees on public streets and grounds, a competent tree-warden is greatly to be desired. When state legislation provides for such an officer he should be chosen with great care and supported with reasonable appropriations of public funds; and in states where tree-wardens are not provided for by law such legislation should be secured as soon as possible. The Massachusetts law is perhaps as good a pattern as any.

Street trees are subject to severe injuries even beyond the liability of other shade trees, such as the damage from leaky electric wires and gas-pipes, gnawing of horses, and sometimes the attacks of ignorant linemen putting up wires. Add to these the usual menace of insect attacks, such as elm leaf-beetle, leopard moth, forest caterpillar, gipsy moth, and the like, and it will be seen that the protection of valuable street trees is a real undertaking. (See Diseases and Inserts and Arboriculture.) The improvement of home-grounds and similar areas is treated elsewhere. (See Landscape Gardening.)

The peculiar agent of village improvement is the village-improvement society, but other organizations are equally useful. Woman's clubs and boards of trade are usually effective. Very often smaller groups which undertake to cover only a single street or a single small neighborhood accomplish the most intensive and satisfactory results. As a rule it is undesirable to form a new organization in any community for village improvement. It is better policy to seek the cooperation of the various existing societies. In certain circumstances these can be federated in a way to cover the problem satisfactorily.

Four factors must always cooperate in order to secure satisfactory results in civic improvement of any sort. These factors are (a) local initiative, (b) expert advice, (c) time, and (d) money, (a) It is always necessary to have some energetic local society or group of men and women who will stand behind any improvement proposition. Without this local initiative nothing can possibly be done, (b) In addition to this it is usually desirable and sometimes positively necessary to have work undertaken on the basis of practical plans drawn by experts from outside the community. The outside assistance is valuable even when no more expert than advice which might be secured within the community itself. Good plans are, however, always indispensable, (c) It then requires a considerable amount of time to carry out important improvement projects. It has been estimated that from six to ten years are always necessary in order to bring a community around to a proper understanding of its problems, and to secure sufficient unity of opinion to accomplish valuable results, (d) Money is very important, but not one-half so important as persons usually suppose. As a rule the money can be raised whenever the community is convinced, as a whole, that the proposed improvement is worth while. It is best under all circumstances to have public property paid for and improved from public funds. This means that the money should be voted by the people themselves from the public treasury. The ordinary way of raising money for village improvement, by raffles, fairs, and other voluntary means, is wholly unsatisfactory. It can accomplish only trivial results. Frank A. Waugh.

Shrubbery in the landscape.

Shrubs and bushes have two values: an intrinsic value as individual or single specimens; a value as part of the structure or design of an ornamented place. As individual specimens, they are grown for the beauty of the species itself; as parts of the landscape, they are usually grown in masses, constituting a shrubbery. It is often advisable to plant shrubs as single specimens, in order to produce the characteristic beauty of the species; but the temptation is to plant exclusively as isolated specimens, and the emphasis needs, therefore, to be placed on mass-planting.

Plants scattered over a lawn destroy all appearance of unity and purpose in the place (Fig. 2997). Every part of the place is equally accented. The area nas no meaning or individuality. The plants are in the way. They spoil the lawn. The place is random. If the shrubs are sheared, the spotted and scattered effect is intensified. Rarely does a sheared shrub have any excuse for existence, unless as a part in an artistically designed formal garden.

A mass or group of planting emphasizes particular parts of the place. It allows of bold and broad contrasts. It may give the place a feeling of strength and purposiveness. The shrubbery-mass usually should have an irregular outline and it often contains more than one species. Thereby are variety and interest increased. Fig. 2998 suggests the interest in a good shrubbery-mass. The shrubbery-masses should be placed on the boundaries; for it is a concept of landscape gardening that the center of the place shall be open. (Fig. 2999; also Figs. 2076, 2077, and others in Vol. IV.) The boundaries are the lines between properties, the foundations of buildings, the borders along walks and drives. Judicious planting may relieve the angularity of foundations and round off the corners of the yard. (Fig. 3000.) Individual specimens may be used freely, but only rarely should they be wholly isolated or scattered. They should be planted somewhere near the borders, that they may not interfere with the continuity of the place and that they may have background to set them off. The background may be a building, a bank, or a mass of foliage. In most places, the mass or border-planting should be the rule and the isolated specimen the exception; but, unfortunately, this rule is frequently reversed. It is not to be understood, however, that boundaries are always to be planted or that foundations are always to be covered. L. H. B.

The chief value of shrubbery comes from its use in an artistic way, although some shrubs have edible fruits. Many shrubs, such as lilacs, some of the spireas, gooseberries, and currants, produce leaves very early in the season and some, like forsythia, daphne, and the juneberry are covered with a profusion of blossoms at this time. From early spring until November in temperate latitudes leaves and flowers are to be found on deciduous shrubs, and from June until the following spring ornamental fruits can be seen on their branches, the red berries of the elder beginning and barberries ending the list. Some of these fruits are so richly colored and so abundant that they can be seen from a long distance. Many shrubs, like some of the viburnums and dogwoods, attain a height of 10 to 15 feet, while others, like bunch- berry and Daphne Cneorum, grow to a height of only a few inches. The leaves of some,
like the chokeberry, Thunberg's barberry, the hazels, viburnums, dogwoods, and sumachs are beautifully colored in autumn. The rhododendrons, laurels, and mahonias, and the daphne already named, are examples of shrubs having evergreen foliage. Some leaves, like those of the Salix lucida, are glossy; others, as those of the common hazel, are hairy; some are thick, and others are thin; some large, some small; some entire, and some lobed, serrated or compound. Throughout the season the foliage of a good collection of shrubbery will present the greatest variety of color, including all the hundreds of shades of green as well as yellow, white, gray, and purple. Even in winter shrubbery is wonderfully attractive in appearance from the gracefulness of its stems and branches, and from the color of its bark. With the right selections, it will serve almost as well as evergreens to shut out from view fences or other low unsightly objects.

This great variety in foliage, flower, fruit, and habit of growth makes shrubbery adapted to very extended use in the development of landscapes. It is especially appropriate along the boundaries of ornamental grounds (Fig. 2999), upon steep slopes, and in the immediate vicinity of buildings where foliage and graceful lines are needed to connect the walls of a structure with the ground (Fig. 3000), without making too much shade. It might with advantage replace the grass upon all surfaces too steep to walk upon with comfort. The foliage of shrubs that are well established remains green when dry weather turns grass brown. The broad mass of shrubbery will take care of itself when the grass needs frequent attention. Even some level surfaces might be improved in places by exchanging a lawn covering for the covering of low woody plants. Often a broad open space over a lawn is an important feature of a landscape, since it allows extended views. Many times a landscape would be more interesting if the green underneath this open space were produced by a broad mass of shrubbery, like a miniature forest, instead of grass.

In planting borders or groups of shrubs, the ground to be occupied by such a group should be entirely spaded over or plowed. Perhaps no better advice could be given than to prepare the soil as it should be prepared for a field of corn. The bushes should then be planted so that there is room for about two years' growth before their branches intermingle. If placed closer they would have a crowded appearance from the start and would not join their branches as harmoniously as when the new growth is allowed to choose its own position. If placed farther apart the effect is also bad. Occasionally a single shrub at the margin of a belt may stand out almost by itself, but generally the effect of a group should be that of a continuous mass of varying foliage.

In arranging different shrubs, the taller-growing kinds should generally be placed in the center of the group, and the lower species along the border, the space being graded from the highest to the lowest. The reason for this arrangement is that the lower plants would be killed by the shade of the larger ones if placed back of them, and moreover would not be seen; but one should avoid too uniform a slope. For example, in a continuous border there should be places where shrubs of larger size occupy the full width so as to bring growth of considerable height into the lawn. The arrangement should be varied so as to avoid all monotony, but in securing this variation a mixture of miscellaneous shrubs of all kinds does not give so good an effect as broader areas of single species or genera slightly interspersed at the margin with shrubs of another kind. Straight rows should be avoided. A laborer or a novice when told this will arrange the plants in a zigzag manner, thinking that he is placing them irregularly, the result often being almost the same as that of two rows. If the group is being planted along a straight line, as the boundary of a lot, the distances of the successive plants from this line might be somewhat as follows: 2 feet, 4 feet, 5 feet, 3 feet, 1 foot, and the distances apart, measured parallel with a fixed line, should vary also.

The ideal condition of a group of shrubbery is to have all the individual plants healthy, so that the foliage will appear fresh and of good color. This foliage should extend down to the surface of the adjacent lawn or walk, and shade the ground underneath so completely that nothing will grow there. The leaves which fall with the approach of winter should be allowed to remain as a perpetual mulch. The desired result cannot be secured the first year the shrubs are planted unless they are of large size and moved but a short distance. The aim in caring for a new plantation should be to secure thrifty plants, and this care, like the preparation of the soil, should be such as is given to a field of corn.

Very little trimming should be done. If a bush is tall and spindling it may be well to cut it off next to the ground and allow it to sprout again. If there is any dead wood it should, of course, be cut off. But when a shrub is healthy and vigorous, let it grow in its own graceful way. If it encroaches upon the walk, cut away the encroaching branch near the root so that the mark of the knife will not be noticed. Such treatment will help to retain the winter beauty of the branches.

The value of shrubbery is not appreciated, either as part in a landscape design or as furnishing for a place. In combination with trees and woods, it ties the planting together, providing easy gradations from greensward up to the tops of trees. Merely to relieve bareness, shrubs are of singular value, as in the suggestion in Fig. 3000, and again, even when slight in quantity, in Fig. 3001. The background in Fig. 3002 is brought down to the ground-line by greenery, mostly of shrub growth. The beauties of Fig. 3003 are in large part the shrub forms and colors, and the arrangement insures much of the general effect. The reader will find that most verdurous landscapes that please him will have their furniture of shrub and bush. O. C. Simonds.

Woods in the landscape.

The principal elements of landscape are atmospheric conditions, irregularities of the earth's surface, water, artificial constructions, herb and shrub ground-cover, and the woods. In the United States the great areas east, west, north, and south of the treeless prairie regions were mostly in evergreen or deciduous woods. Industries, habitation, and cultivation have divided the great wooded areas into small wood-lots and into forests that are for the most part broken into sprout- and tree-growth areas as the cordwood or timber is harvested in thirty- to sixty-year periods. The corresponding landscape modifications to that offered by this cutting of the forests is presented by homestead tree plantations that have broken the great unobstructed herb-covered prairie sweeps into series of tree-framed vistas. This offers a striking example of the importance of woods in landscape.

In the arid regions of the West, the woods are confined to a meager growth in places made moist by springs, streams, or by irrigation, to mountain slopes and valleys, and to the humid regions and mountain valleys of the Northwest. In this last section, the region of sequoias, pines, spruces, and firs, are the stateliest cone-bearing forests of the continent. The white and Norway pines of the Northeast and the long-leaf pine of the Southeast, only approach the Pacific Coast Range trees in grandeur.

As landscapes of the highest types of beauty include woods, and as wood has a high economic value, one should determine how best to save woods for their beauty and to set aside the areas that should be harvested. To fix upon areas to be kept in woods and those to be used for agriculture, industries, and habitation, economic surveys should be made of large areas. In such surveys land that is ill fitted for cultivation should be outlined and set aside in public reservation, with a view to maintaining it largely in forests. Land that is suitable for cultivation, habitation, and industries should be set aside for these purposes, and the forests stripped therefrom as the land is needed. This countryside planning is already being worked out in the study of city and county. The plans of the regions about Boston, Massachusetts, in Essex County, New Jersey, and Cook County, Illinois, and of such towns as Hopedale, Massachusetts, represent studies in which forest areas are set aside, in public reservations, and the forest growth encouraged thereon.

It is not to be assumed that such forests are without other economic values than the recreation they offer to many persons. It has been found possible in the development of such areas to increase the beauty of the forests and to secure a money-return that will nearly, if not quite, cover the cost of the cutting from the sale of forest-thinning products. It is likely that under wise management such forests can be constantly increased in beauty with little or no burden of cost.

In the areas that are assigned in the economic study of a region for other purposes than permanent forest holdings, the existing forest growth may often be continued for many years as the principal crop, or new forests may even be planted and grown before the time comes to cultivate the land in annual crops.

In the development of woods in landscape, the work can be performed in such a way as greatly to increase the beauty of the existing growth, which now is seldom the primeval growth, by thinning to develop the finest specimens and the finest groups of trees. A selection can abo be made in the cutting to increase the dominance of different species in different localities. Cutting may often be made to open vistas and wide views from particularly attractive viewpoints. It can also be made to develop more attractive sky-lines and foliage-masses as seen from valley viewpoints or from hilltop and ridges to distant hills and ridges.

The larger factors of beauty in landscape and the economic values of woods are of interest to the general public. To the individual owner of estates and home-grounds the woods have a more intimate and personal interest. Such owners are concerned about the protection against drifting snow, bleak wind, and hot sun, a shelter for the bird-life that protects the crops, a setting and a background for their home buildings to merge them into an agreeable landscape picture, a ramble and a picnic place where the wild flowers, the fruits, and the autumn leaves can te found by the children who love the woods. The wood-lot is also a place where many sticks of timber for special purposes and some cordwood will be secured in the cutting from year to year of the weaker trees that are overtopped by their neighbors, and from thinning that must be made if the highest types of woodland beauty are to be developed. Bear in mind that the wood-lot in good soil may produce a cord of wood to the acre each year.

Fortunate is the owner who has an established wood-lot, and especially if he appreciates and takes wise advantage of its utility and beauty. As woods would be included the thicket of few trees in the little town lot as well as the acres of trees on the large estates, because in the cool shade and leaf-mold soil of each the same plants and bird-shelters may be established. When there is no wood-lot one must plant either evergreen or deciduous trees to make one. If the home lot is a small one and it is desired to have a little wood-lot high enough to walk under at once, at reasonable cost, tall slender collected or nursery-grown trees may be planted close together and then thinned as they grow.

If a shelter-belt for winter is the most important consideration, use such cone-bearing evergreens as the pines, spruces, hemlocks, junipers, arbor-vitae, cypress, the last three for a narrow belt, or in the South and on the Pacific coast, such broad-leaved evergreens as the magnolia, eucalyptus, camphor tree.

It should be known that undergrowth and ground-cover plants with attractive flowers cannot be so easily established under evergreens as under deciduous trees; also that among the deciduous trees are more rapid-growing species with attractive flowers and fruit.

To grow a very interesting wood-lot in a few years from the small seedling plants that can be secured in large quantities at low cost, such plants would be set from 3 to 5 feet apart. At this distance they soon shade the ground so much with foliage as to kill out ordinary weeds and give encouragement to the more attractive woodland plants. Furthermore, close planting will force a rapid growth in height. In the selection of plants, about a third would be made up of the quick-growing low-cost species such as poplar, soft maple, negundo, catalpa, locust, and in warm sections the eucalyptus, pepper tree, grevillea. Another third would be made up of the slower-growing more permanent trees, such as oak, maple, and magnolia. The last third would be of such undergrowth, shrubs, and small trees as the flowering dogwoods, red-bud, benzoin, viburnums, white fringe, rhododendrons, azaleas, callicarpa, manzanita, and madrona. Woodland ground-cover plants may be established by bringing them in from the woods with an abundance of the natural leaf-mold soil retained about their roots.

The location for the wood-lot is at the point near the home buildings where it will best serve such purposes as are referred to early in this article, but as open land in this position is very valuable for farm uses the lot should not be large; elsewhere on the farm the wood-lot should occupy land least suited for annual crops, such as the very steep slopes and the rocky or barren areas.

Aside from woods themselves, tree forms have their special values in providing structural features in a landscape, combining well with architectural forms and affording good backgrounds and boundaries. Strip the trees from such constructions as shown in Figs. 3004 and 3005 and note the effect. Warren H. Manning.

Wild-gardening.

Wild-gardening is the art of arranging and growing colonies of hardy plants, native or foreign, so that they will look like wild flowers, multiplying with little or no care after planting. A wild-garden is not a garden that has run wild, reminding us of man's neglect; it is a poetic suggestion of the beauty of nature untouched by man. Beginners commonly suppose that wild- gardening is merely the cultivation of native flowers, as in a small border. Such an effort is worth while, but it is rarely artistic and can hardly be called wild-gardening. The main idea of the latter, originally, was to naturalize foreign flowers in larger masses than those of the garden. Wild-gardening is, therefore, a branch of landscape gardening which aims to reproduce the largest floral effects of nature with the least suggestion of man's interference.

The large facts in wild-gardening are: (1) the place or location for it; (2) the composition, as part of the landscape; (3) the kinds of plants; and (4) the small or incidental effects of clumps and nooks here and there. Fig. 3006 shows a wild-garden composition; ordinarily, a wild-garden is supposed to be merely "wild" or growing at random, as in Fig. 3007, and this effect is sometimes much to be desired. The nook or corner effect of planting (4) is shown in Fig. 3008, representing a rear screen.

Wild-gardening as a distinct department of floriculture first came into popularity about 1870, when "The Wild Garden" was written by William Robinson. Robinson's first aim was to introduce more variety into English gardens, which were monotonously gaudy in the Victorian era. Because of their greater showiness, tropical bedding-plants had driven hardy perennial flowers out of fashion. Robinson put the border on an artistic plane by paying more attention to grouping, color schemes, and new varieties; he popularized the rock- and water-garden; and he created the wild- garden. His second aim in wild-gardening was to reproduce some of the loveliest floral pictures of the North Temperate zone which demand freedom from the garden inclosure. A third aim was to make a place for thousands of plants worth growing that are banished from conventional gardens because they have small flowers, a short season, or are unsightly when out of bloom. A fourth aim was to satisfy the universal craving for wildness.

The areas most commonly used for wild-gardening are woods, meadows, and orchards. Unfortunately, orchards cannot usually be kept in grass for many years, as in Europe. Those who are the fortunate possessors of waterside, bluffs, rocks, or sandy wastes have special opportunities for wild-gardening. Those who are confined to city lots can merely suggest the spirit of wild- gardening in lawns and borders.

The finest effects in wild-gardening are suggested not by book-study but by nature-study, paying special attention to grouping and massing. For example, if the problem is to cover a bank, the books suggest locust, willows, or other suckering plants. The beginner then covers the bank exclusively with locusts or willows, which produces an artificial or gardenesque effect. Nature rarely adopts a one-plant solution of any problem. She generally grows three or four crops on the same ground, e.g., tree, shrub, and vine, or shrub, carpeting-plant, and bulb.

If one follows the nearest river-bank for a mile or so, the finest combination may be buckeye, wild goose-berry, and American bluebells, or sumach, blue phlox, and adder's-tongue. Such combinations always give more variety than one-plant solutions, generally more color, and look wilder because they represent a mode of living worked out by ages of struggle. When one combines roses, lilacs, and peonies on a sand-hill, the plants look unhappy, especially in August, but if one plants red cedar and bayberry the plants soon look as if they had been there from time immemorial. The skill of the wild-gardener lies in detecting plant associations that will solve each practical problem and look as if they were hundreds of years old.

In massing plants so as to imitate nature the commonest notion is to scatter them indiscriminately, but this is no longer considered the surest and quickest way to produce the finest effects. The showiest floral effect in nature is the solid mass or sheet of flowers of a single kind. But this is not the finest or wildest effect. William Robinson often takes the clouds as patterns in outlining his colonies. Clouds also suggest good combinations of density and thinness in sowing seeds or planting bulbs. One of the finest floral effects in nature is the kind of massing known as "the mother country and her colonies." The object is to suggest that the flowers have sprung from seed scattered by the prevailing wind. The outlying masses, therefore, follow one general direction (without being in straight lines), and they decrease in number, size, and density as they recede from the largest mass.

Design in wild-gardening.

In the woods one generally has the greatest opportunity for intensifying the feeling of wildness, because it is often possible to shut out all suggestion of the outside world—including even the sounds of civilization. Therefore, woods are generally surrounded by an irregular belt of native shrubs dense enough to hide artificial objects from the interior of the wood, leaving openings only for the main trails. The entrances can be marked without making them too gardenesque by saving or planting any trees that naturally form a good arch or frame, as white pine often does, by planting some accent marks, such as red cedar, arbor-vitae, canoe birch, and mountain-ash, or by training into a bower vines such as wild grape, clematis, bittersweet, or Virginia creeper. A system of trails is next established and the planting is usually made near the trails, from which the colonies are generally expected to spread gradually into the remoter parts of the wood. To secure the finest effects, however, it is necessary to plant the dramatic, or picturesque places, such as spring, brook, rocks, glades, hilltop, or outlook with the wild flowers appropriate to each situation. Wild-gardening in the woods is also known as landscape forestry.

In meadows it is possible to allow daffodil bulbs to multiply for many years, since they may not interfere with the hay crop. The foliage ripens and falls to the ground before harvest. Bulbs that bloom after harvest-time, like Lilium superbum, are best restricted to the edges of the meadow. But the sunny meadow generally offers the greatest canvas for painting floral pictures—daffodils by the 10,000 and narcissi either in sheets or colonies.

In fields, however, wild-gardening involves serious economic loss. Despite this fact, many efforts have been made to imitate the European grain-fields made glorious by Papaver Rhoeas, the scarlet annual weed which is the parent of the Shirley poppies. The seed is cheap but the poppies bloom in a half-hearted fashion and vanish after a year or two.

In permanent pastures wild-gardening is limited to species that are not eaten by cattle, and the effects are necessarily scattering or spotty. On a hillside at Gravetye, Robinson has naturalized the oriental poppy in isolated clumps of about a dozen plants. This is perhaps the most daring feat with which a wild-gardener may hope to succeed, for foreign flowers as gorgeous as this cannot pass themselves off as wild flowers. The distant effect, however, is very spirited, and the green background saves the effort from vulgarity.

On rocks the arrangement is largely determined by the position of soil-pockets large enough to grow plants. Soil can be added, but at great expense.

The waterside offers chances for unique effects, because the boldest tree-forms and colors have a mirror, shrubs may obscure the line where land and water meet, and amphibious plants, like the aquatic buttercup, may swim out a few feet. Also the grace of falling water can be suggested by shrubs with arching branches, or vines planted at the top of the bank. Some of the best colonies of wild flowers are those formed by seeds falling from the top of a bank.

In roadside planting, ideals have changed greatly since 1900. Then the standard of beauty was the shrub-lined roadsides of New England. That type is rapidly vanishing from the main roads, owing to the laws against the gipsy moth and the use of the stone walls for road-making. No two miles of roadside planting should be alike. There should be shrubs enough to bring back the birds; and wild flowers arranged and maintained according to the principles of wild- gardening.

On city lots, the wild-garden shrinks merely to a border of wild flowers but differs from the hardy border of mixed perennials. The latter is a conventional arrangement of flowers, mostly of foreign origin, selected for their showy forms, colors, and succession of bloom. The border of wild flowers may become an artistic wild-garden by directly imitating some natural effect, especially a local combination or plant association. For example, in the shady border the flood-plain may be recalled by hepatica, bloodroot, meadow rue, and trillium; the swamp by cinnamon and royal fern and marsh marigold; the ravine by Aster laevis and blue-stemmed goldenrod. In the sunny border the prairie may be recalled by cone-flowers, compass plant, and sunflowers; the swamp by boneset, joe-pye, and blue lobelia; the riverside by mist-flower (Eupatorium coelestinum) and sneezeweed; the dry roadside by butterfly weed and wild bergamot.

On city lots, also, the free meadow contracts into a close-cropped lawn, but the wild-gardening spirit is expressed in numberless attempts to naturalize crocuses and the March-blooming bulbs—snowdrop, Siberian scilla, and glory-of-the-snow. Unfortunately, they cannot ripen their foliage before the lawn must be mown, and therefore they die in a few years.

Plant materials.

There are three principles that grow out of the aim of wild-gardening, which is to grow self-supporting colonies that will look and act like wild flowers. (1) The esthetic principle is that all materials in landscape wild-gardening shall be primitive species or slightly improved varieties. This rules out all flowers that have been profoundly modified by man, such as double and round-petaled flowers of all kinds. Double daffodils thrive permanently in some meadows, but they do not look like wild flowers, as single daffodils do. May tulips and Darwins are permanent, but these also do not look like wild flowers, as do tulips with pointed petals. Cottage tulips look wilder than other late tulips, and the wildest of all is Tulipa sylvestris. The magnificent red flower, Tulipa Gesneriana, which somewhat resembles the prototype of garden tulips, is too gorgeous to look like a wild flower in the woods, but it might be used for distant effects in the meadow, if oriental poppy is considered permissible. (2) The cultural principle demands permanence in wild-gardening. Crocuses, early tulips, and hyacinths are too short-lived in long grass. English books and magazines illustrate exquisite effects in March and April made by winter aconite, European cyclamen, Grecian wind-flower, and Apennine anemone, but these are too tender or difficult for the American public to naturalize. (3) The economic principle requires that the materials of wild-gardening shall be cheap, for expensive varieties are instantly recognizable and look out of place. A good rule is to pay not more than 1 or 2 cents a bulb for daffodils by the 1,000 or 500. There are twenty to thirty varieties that can be had at this rate, and they fit the woods and meadows better than the varieties that cost 3 or 4 cents a bulb.

Foreign species offer greater temptations for display than native kinds. The danger line is that between the garden and wild-garden. This has already been indicated for daffodils, which are the unquestioned favorites for wild-gardening. Dutch hyacinths are inappropriate in long grass, and they soon perish. The Roman hyacinth looks more like a wild flower, but it is better to plant English bluebells or wood-hyacinths, known to the trade as Scilla nutans and S. hispanica, and the prairie hyacinth, Camassia esculenta. In addition to the foreign species commended, the lemon lily (Hemerocallis) is also adaptable, as its foliage harmonizes with long grass. This species looks much better beside the water than the orange day lily, which is better suited to the roadside. The most beautiful group for the water-side, probably, is the genus Iris. The famous iris meadow of the Royal Horticultural Society at Wisley, which has inspired much American wild-gardening since 1908, is a standard for combining the maximum of splendor with good taste. There is no difficulty in making the Siberian iris look wild, or the tall yellow iris of Europe, but the German and Japanese must be used with restraint, if at all.

It is safer to use large masses of native varieties than of foreign ones, but it is easy to overdo bee-balm, New England aster, butterfly weed, blue flag, and purple cone-flower, unless they are softened by shade, mellowed by distance, or veiled by long grass. Other American plants that are generally easy to manage on a large scale are marsh marigold, large-flowered trillium, wild blue phlox, spiderwort, Lilium superbum, boltonia, sneezeweed, sunflower, swamp rose mallow, and cardinal flower.

The ideal in the planting and after-care of a wild-garden is to betray no evidence of man's work. In planting bulbs, a good way is to scatter them on the ground, arranging them with the feet in cloud-like outlines containing about fifty bulbs, and then plant them where they lie, using a dibber or bulb-planter when the ground has been softened by the rains. Another method is to cut three sides of a sod with a spade, raise the grass, and insert five to seven bulbs at irregular distances. In the border the common unit of planting is a dozen plants; in the wild-garden fifty is a good unit. This is about the minimum that can be called a colony.

Wild-gardening was formerly considered essentially cosmopolitan in its spirit, as it still is in England. In America, however, wild-gardening commonly means the cultivation of American wild flowers, and the number of pure American compositions has greatly increased. Over $6,000,000 worth of work done in the Middle West since 1901 has been inspired by the idea of restoration.

Gardening within an inclosure is a matter of personal privilege, but wild-gardening has developed a distinct code of ethics, due largely to the Wild Flower Preservation Society of America and walking clubs, like the Appalachian and Prairie, that do not permit their members to pick flowers, and a growing appreciation of wildlife. Wilhelm Miller.

Bog-gardening.

Bog-gardening depends for success on the distinction between bogs and other wet or swampy places (Vol. I, p. 519). In the marsh or swamp, drainage is usually fairly regular and free; in the true bog, drainage is practically lacking or free only during the spring thaw. Because of this lack of drainage there is in all bogs an accumulation of sourness in the bog-water, which is strongly acid and dark-colored in some glacial potholes, more moderately so in some of the partly drained bogs of the coastal plain regions of the country. There is usually, but not always, a deficiency of lime in bog-soils, and in nature there is a very large percentage of mycorrhizal plants in them. The relation of the mycorrhizal habit of obtaining food and the acidity of the bog is a very delicate and complex one and little is actually known of it; but experience has shown such a relation to exist.

The reason for having a bog-garden is that in it many very interesting plants may be grown that could not thrive in any other situation, and many ordinary swamp plants can also be grown along its edges. For those who have an undrained area or one poorly drained, the problem of having a bog-garden almost solves itself. But the demands of others who wish to grow the many beautiful species that will become naturalized only in such places, has led to the construction of artificial bogs. These may be of any size from a few square feet to comparatively large areas, and methods of construction must vary according to the nature of the subsoil. In places where there is a layer of hard-pan and the downward drainage is poor, it will be necessary only to dig out the desired amount, fill in enough blue clay to make the basin water-tight and then put in the mixture described below.

A more permanent and satisfactory type of construction is to make the basin of concrete, the walls and floor of which should not be less than 6 to 8 inches thick, to prevent the concrete from cracking during frost. Waterproof the concrete, and it is best to smear clay over the walls and bottom because in all concrete mixtures there is lime. The completed bog, whether of concrete or merely scooped out of the ground, should be 2 feet deep, its edges practically flush with the surrounding ground. If of concrete, sods will easily grow over it and the hard line of the rim may thus be completely hidden. One should be sure, before filling with the mixture, that the tank is water-tight, as though it were for a lily-pond. The shape of the structure, whichever type of construction is used, must be a matter of individual taste. While informality is the essence of bog-gardening, a "regular irregularity" is most to be fought against. Observation of natural bogs, their shapes and shorelines, will put the imaginative bog-gardener in possession of all the suggestions needed. As an important feature, it should be remembered that the drainage from the surrounding region should be all in, not out.

The mixture to go in the bog-garden is preferably one that has come out of a cranberry or natural bog,— muck, twigs, water, slime and all. From such a mixture, a host of very interesting bog-plants will spring up the first year and these may be isolated in clumps after the first season. A good plan when following this procedure is to let the inner part of the bog run wild, clearing a strip of a foot or two all around the edges for the cultivation of species needing, for exhibition purposes, more open spaces. Provision should be made, either in this strip or in any other open place in the bog for: (1) a place where only sand and peat soil, mixed about half and half, is found, to be used for certain plants that are described in the lists following; and (2) some small space of practically open water where the very interesting bladder-worts may be grown. The latter situation can be made by scooping out the muck for a few inches, filling in with sand and peat soil, leaving about 5 to 6 inches depth of water. For those who cannot secure muck from natural bogs, a soil may be mixed of leaf-mold, sand, and twigs and leaves of the oaks or of mountain laurel or rhododendron refuse. One should guard against getting the mixture too heavy and clayey. Sand and plenty of twigs and leaves of the species mentioned will lighten up the mixture,—leaf-mold makes it more heavy.

The management of the bog-garden requires some skill and observation. As the amount of evaporation from the surface is enormous, water must be added, either artificially or naturally. Strive to keep the bog just full enough not to overflow, thus keeping the whole sponge wet, but preventing the leaking out of the valuable acids that are the life of the bog. Both for the effect and for the good of the bog, it is desirable to cover all the open spaces in it with live sphagnum moss, which when once established, will make a delightful carpet.

Plants for the bog-garden.

Many bog-plants are very showy and worthy of cultivation. Others, such as the insectivorous kinds, are among the most wonderful plants in nature, for they have the unique distinction of being able to digest animal matter directly, a habit otherwise unknown in the realm of vegetable life. In the following account of bog-plants many are necessarily omitted, and it should be remembered that a number of purely swamp species, not mentioned here, can also be grown in bogs.

I. Shrubs.

Rhodora (Rhododendron canadense), purple flowers before the leaves in April and May; 3 to 5 feet.
Swamp azalea (Rhododendron viscosum), white or pink flowers after the leaves in May or June; 5 to 8 feet.
Sheep-laurel (Kalmia angustifolia), purplish pink flowers, summer; 1 to 2 feet; also Kalmia polifolia in northern regions.
Leather-leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata), small whitish flowers along one side of the branches, May; 1 to 2 feet.
Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), white flowers in terminal clusters; leaves russet-brown below; 2 to 5 feet.
Wild rosemary (Andromeda polifolia), drooping white flowers, early spring; leaves silvery below; under 2 1/2 feet.
Creeping snowberry (Chiogenes hispidula), prostrate, with tiny white flowers and snow berries; leaves dark, evergreen.

There are many others, but these are the best for the temperate regions of the United States. In the South many others are to be found.
II. Perennials, grown chiefly for their flowers.
In any open part of the bog.
Calla palustris, a greenish flowered water arum having a conspicuous white spathe; showy and hardy.
Acorus Calamus, sword-shaped leaves and a finger-like flower-cluster; the root is the medicinal calamus.
Viola lanceolata, a delicate, very free-flowered violet with lance-shaped leaves.
Asclepias lanceolata, a deep red milkweed, very showy, and with smooth narrow leaves.
Potentilla palustris, the purple marshlocks, a sprawling rather rank bog-plant with purple flowers.
Penthorum sedoides, greenish yellow flowers in curved spikes in summer; native plant, probably not in the trade.
Orontium aquaticum, the golden-club, very early flowering, making a patch of gold in March or April.
Menyanthes trifoliata, with three-divided leaves and many conspicuous white flowers; the buck-bean is a valuable addition.
Helonias bullata, flowering in April to May; the swamp pink is our most conspicuous spring flower.
There are many asters, goldenrods, and eupatoriums that grow in bogs, as well as some gentians, but the bog species must be collected from the wild.
In wet sandy places.

Here must be grown all the species of Xyris or yellow-eyed grass, curious plants with long, delicate, grass-like leaves and tiny heads of yellow flowers. Also species of Eriocaulon or bunch-flowers should be grown here. They are not large, have sword-shaped leaves and white erect heads not unlike the everlastings. With these two must go the meadow-beauty, different species of Rhexia with beautiful purplish red flowers. The common R. virginica is the hardiest and easiest to procure.

All the plants in this class and the following are to be secured from dealers in bog-plants or collected in the wild. There are others such as Lophiola, Narthecium, and Zyadenus.

In open water.
The bladder-worts are different species of Utricularia, some with purple and some with yellow flowers, some floating on the surface and supported by air-bladders, others rooting near the edges of the pool. They are the most interesting and delicate of all bog species.

III. Bog Orchids.

Many native orchids can be grown only in bogs, and from them the following have been selected, as the most noteworthy. All are perennials and may be secured from the dealers.
Calopogon pulchellus, pink-purple flowers about an inch in diameter, June and July; leaves grass-like.
Cypripedium parviflorum, a small-flowered yellow lady's slipper; raise up so that the roots will not be too wet.
Cypripedium spectabile (C. reginae or C. hirsutum), showy lady's slipper; beautiful rose-purple or nearly white flowers; better for a little shade.

Habenaria blephariglottis, a white-fringed orchid with a showy spike; 1 to 2 feet; does splendidly in the open sun.
Habenaria ciliaris, yellow fringed orchid; very showy spike; 1 to 1/2 feet.
Arethusa bulbosa, beautiful purplish pink flowers, about the last of May; 3 to 6 inches.
Spiranthes cernua, white, slender spikes; the ladies-tresses; several others, even more slender species are known.

Besides these are over forty other species which may be collected by the enthusiast. Nearly all of our most beautiful native orchids are bog-flowers. Most of them can be grown in pure live sphagnum moss.

IV. Insectivorous Plants.

Grown more for their peculiar habits of getting food and for their odd form than for beauty. They are of several types; some catch insects in a tube-shaped leaf, drowning them at the bottom of the cup, others have sticky hair to which the insect becomes fastened, and the most wonderful of all, the dionaea, actually traps its food by a contraction of its jaw-like, prickly leaves. The best insectivorous bog-plants are as follows:

With pitchers.

Sarracenia purpurea, having short purplish red pitchers, quite hardy northward, but not easy to maintain in an artificial bog.
Sarracenia rubra, the red trumpet-leaf, with tall pitchers; does very well in artificial bog.
Sarracenia flava, also with tall pitchers but yellow.
Sarracenia Drummondii, with variegated pitchers, the largest and most showy of all.
The last three must be taken in during the winter, north of Washington, D. C.; all of them grow rapidly and, if the season is favorable, will color up beautifully.
With sticky hairs.
All the species of Drosera have the curious habit of catching and digesting insects. They are all small plants which should be planted in masses on sphagnum moss. All native species are quite hardy and many can be secured from dealers in bog-plants. D. rotundifolia is the best; and D. capensis is a good species, but hardy only South.

With contracting leaves.

The Venus fly-trap, a low perennial with two valve-like leaves that contract whenever an insect or other irritation comes between them. Closing up rather rapidly these leaves are among the most interesting objects to see in the bog-garden. Not hardy north of Washington, D. C.

The darlingtonia, a Califqrnian insectivorous plant allied to the eastern sarracenia, can be grown along the Atlantic coast only with protection, but south of Washington it should be hardy. One of the most striking bog-plants. See Vol. II, page 964. N. Taylor.

Water-gardening.

Water-gardening is the cultivation of water-lilies and the other aquatic plants, those that grow in water rather then in bogs or wet soil, particularly those that have floating parts.

Water-gardening is such a special form of plant-growing that it should be attempted only in the personal parts of the grounds, and where all the conditions of control can be secured. The species formerly known were mostly collected from tropical climates and were adapted almost exclusively for warm greenhouse culture and were to be found solely in botanic gardens and homes of the wealthy. However, the idea that our central Atlantic states were sufficiently warm to grow
some of the tropical varieties out-of-doors in summer was tested in the early eighties of last century by the successful flowering out-of-doors without artificial heat of a plant of Victoría regia.

For many years the aquatic gardens in Lincoln Park, Chicago, the Shaw Botanic Garden in St. Louis, Missouri, the New York Botanical Garden at the Bronx, and Prospect Park, Brooklyn, as well as in other cities, have paved the way for the advancement of this popular and most interesting phase of gardening.

But it was not until Latour-Marliac, of France, conceived the idea of crossing species of the hardy nympheas of the United States, notably the southern species N. mexicana (N. flava) and N. tuberosa (Fig. 3009, from G. F.), that a great impetus was aroused in the cultivation of water-lilies. The cost of maintaining a high temperature for the cultivation of the tropical lilies, besides the necessity of having a glass structure and water-tight tanks, cisterns, and so on, seemed still to impress the public generally that it was too costly to construct artificial pools and fountain basins. The products of Latour-Marliac found a ready market in England and as rapidly as he introduced a new hardy water-lily the more enthusiasm was aroused and the more the demand increased; and their popularity naturally spread to the United States. See also the discussion under Nymphaea.

It has been demonstrated that water-lilies can be grown successfully in the United States; not only the hardy varieties and the hybrids but the tender tropical nympheas, the victorias, the Egyptian and Japanese lotus are to be seen, during our summer season.

Many gardens and plantings of water-lilies and aquatic and subaquatic plants are too stiff and formal. Nothing is so inartistic as regular lines on the margins of some ponds and again of crowding too many varieties in one small pond. Natural planting is in masses and groups, and single plants are admissible only in small ponds or artificial basins in small and limited gardens.

Since it is found that reinforced concrete is the simplest means of construction and that water-tight and frost-proof receptacles can be secured at moderate expense, water-gardening is rapidly developing. Also the number of species has so rapidly increased that it is no longer difficult to select water-lilies for a miniature garden, tubs, small pools, fountain basins, ponds, and lakes; also for all seasons of the year, as it has been demonstrated that these charming flowers can be had in the depth of winter.

For the small garden where there is but a limited space, a miniature artificial stream terminating in a small pool could be constructed; on either side of this streamlet may be planted moisture-loving plants such as calamus, calthas, Calla palustris, rushes of various kinds, menyanthes, sagittarias, lobelias (cardinal flower), Myosotis Scorpioides, and iris in variety; and in the pool the miniature water-lily, Nymphaea tetragona (N. pygmaea) (white) and Nymphaea tetragona helvola (yellow). This style of water-garden can be carried out on a much larger scale where space will permit and a much larger collection of subaquatic and moisture-loving plants can be used as well as more nympheas and of larger dimensions.

Water-gardening on a small scale can be most successfully carried out with the use of tubs, half-barrels sunken in the ground, two, three or more placed as thought best. In the rear of the tubs plant Japanese iris, flags, and moisture-loving plants, making a pleasing background, and between the tubs if ground can be kept moist, parrot's feather (Myriophyllum proserpinacoides), or Myosotis scorpioides (M. palustris), or Lysimachia nummularia, or dwarf trailing plants. For tub culture nympheas of moderate growth are preferable. N. Laydekeri var. rosea and N. Laydekeri var. lilacea are both charming varieties of pink rosy lilac, changing to rose and carmine, very free flowering. There are several other nympheas of moderate growth and pleasing shades of color suitable for tub culture. Many persons make serious mistakes by selecting strong and vigorous plants suited only for large ponds or even lakes. The plants may live and be very thrifty but will not flower.

A better and very satisfactory water-garden for a small place can be had by constructing a concrete pool 4 to 5 feet, or any size desired, bearing in mind that a large pool in a small garden is inconsistent. A pool or basin 4 to 5 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep will accommodate three nympheas. The surroundings may be similar as recommended for tubs, but no two gardens are alike.

Other aquatics may be found under the genera Alisma, Aponogeton (Ouvirandra), Azolla, Brasenia, Butomus, Cabomba (Fig. 3010), Ceratopteris, Eichhornia, Elisma, Elodea, Euryale, Hottonia, Hydrilla, Hydrocharis, Hydrocleis, Lemna, Limnobium, Limnocharis, Ludwigia, Myriophyllum, Nelumbo, Nuphar, Nymphoides (Limnanthemum), Pistia, Potamogeton, Riccia, Ricciocarpus, Sagittaria, Salvinia, Utricularia, Vallisneria. See also the articles, Aquarium, Aquatics, Nymphaea, Victoria; also Bog-gardening, page 2666. William Tricker.

Subtropical-gardening.

Under this denomination are included all those gardening effort« that aim to introduce into cool or cold climates the plant forms and the foliar luxuriance of tropical and semi-tropical regions. The subtropical garden may be permanent if it is under glass; but the term is usually employed to denote the summer effects secured by transferring glasshouse plants to the open and combining them in such a way as to produce a harmonious composition. It is not often that an approach to real tropical effects can be made in a northern garden, and yet it is well to have these effects in mind; Figs. 3011, 3012, reduced from Garden and Forest, show real tropical vegetation.

Subtropical plants are represented by the lush-leaved caladiums and cannas, the brilliant-colored foliage of crotons and dracenas, the towering plumes of palms, the succulent leaf or stem of century plant or cactus, and the dense rank ground-cover of selaginellas and todeas. The interest in such plants is chiefly in the foliage, rather than in the flowers. In the plant groups they stand at the opposite extreme from the rock-garden plants with tufts, cushions, and mats of miniature foliage that in the blossoming season are nearly covered with flowers, and thin films of mosses, lichens, and algae on the rock and earth surface. The subtropical plants of each of the climatic regions of the United States are usually from a warmer region, although natives having a like character may well be used in outdoor planting. The fibrous-rooted exotics, such as palms and tree ferns, are grown in greenhouses for the full year, either in permanent beds or in pots and tubs. The larger and more perfect the specimen, the greater its value. Usually in such a collection of plants under glass there are numerous species each
represented by one or a few plants, all grouped together in a crowded mass. Such a collection is not a subtropical garden and does not represent the most effective use of the material.

The potted plants that have foliage tough enough to withstand summer winds and sun, such as palms; cycas, ficus, and crotons, are often used in the garden in summer, or under the protection of trees, as subtropical beds or garden compartments. Each plant is valued for itself, just as it is in the greenhouse in winter, size and perfection of form being its chief attractions. Each has no relation to the foliage about it, except that its unusual character of leaf and growth makes a striking contrast to the normal native vegetation. For this kind of planting a few well-grown specimens give the desired summer appearance to the garden.

One of the very best of indoor subtropical gardens in America is the tropical house at Garfield Park, Chicago, where a comparatively few species, such as the tree-fern overhead and selaginellas as a ground-cover, are used in large numbers to make bands of foliage to arch paths and hide the glass roof, and to frame in vistas to glimpses of water, with carpets of green below. Here is a consistent and exquisite example of subtropical-gardening, the dominant note is light with the artificial construction that supports and protects it all, so cleverly disguised as to make it appear like a real glade in the tropics. There is an effect of airy lightness to it all that is a thrilling surprise as one passes in from the snows of winter out-of-doors. Equally as distinctive and effective results would be secured by the use of such greenhouse vines as tacsonia, allamanda and bougainvillea, or by the use of the somber greens of ficus.

In the open air, the use of palms, tree ferns, dracenas, crotons, caladiums, and ficus for summer decoration is not widespread. On large estates and in parks that can boast of greenhouses, a group planting of these subjects in the summer in the open is often to be found. In this case the outdoor use of the plants is more or less for the good of the plants and therefore little care or study is given to the grouping. The plants are "turned out to pasture" to rest up from the strenuous winter and stiffen their stems and roots for another year. Their winter appearance is their main purpose. Sometimes, especially in parks and botanic gardens, the plants are grouped by family or ecology, as a succulent group, desert group, or palm group, keeping closely to their winter arrangement under glass, more to put them under somewhat natural conditions for their best growth that they may require less personal attention from the gardener, than from a desire for any definite landscape effects.

The nearest approach in the United States (outside the very southernmost parts) to the tree-like palm vegetation of the tropics and sub-tropics is in the palmetto (Fig. 3013; also Fig. 3516, Vol. VI), which is native as far north as North Carolina, and is very useful as a decorative plant.

The smaller-growing subtropical plants are much used in the production of the most studied designs in planting, namely, in the construction of floral patterns, the very precise designs of city seals and the emblems of the many secret orders, "floral signs," and rarely, as in Regent Park, London, in the making of floral clocks. In these plantings, use is made of celosias, alternantheras, coleus, and echeverias and other tender succulents. This use of plants is decidedly on the wane on private estates and in the larger parks, for it has not now the sanction of fashion for the making of permanent seasonal garden features, but it has a value as display in horticultural or other exhibitions as a temporary affair, showing gardeners' ingenuity.

One great use of individual subtropical plants in pots has been in formal gardens as decorative adjuncts. These are then distinct garden features, garden accessories of rank similar to statuary and special flowerbeds. For such effects, large "orangeries were maintained in the great day of the formal garden in Italy and France, and the use of such plants has been retained in our elaborate gardens today.

In park planting, the use of subtropical plants often produces pleasing pictures, but only when the entire surroundings are very artificial and refined. Since the final character of a finished planting is based solely upon the foliage mass, plants of the same character only should be used in the separate plantings. The most natural effect is gained when the plants are grown in the ground, either with the pots plunged or planted directly in the soil. For this purpose the plants must be given conditions under glass to keep them alive all winter, but not necessarily in active growth, or kept in a dormant condition in pits, or stored as tubers. Plants for this purpose may be thus grouped—the taller woody plants to give height of green foliage to the group, low tender flowering herbs to give color from leaf or flower, and bulbous plants for bold leafage or bright flowers as fillers among the foliage plants.

Plantings of this kind involve considerable yearly cost for storage of potted plants or tubers, and great expense of annual planting and digging. Then there is a comparatively short season of foliage and flowers, from the time that the semi-dormant vegetation gets under way in July until cut down by early frosts. Yet effects not otherwise to be secured by plant materials can be given gardens and parks in this way. This is a use of tender plants that will be greatly developed in the future, by park super-intendents and owners of large estates who have the courage to break away from the usual specimen or jumbled planting, and make real garden pictures. There is very little of this kind of gardening as yet. The temporary tropical foliage of our summer gardens is much more effectively used today than it was a few years ago, but the problem must be studied more carefully before the best possible use is made of this material.

The ideal subtropical garden gives in a small compass the feeling of the wonder and luxuriance of the vegetation of the tropics, and suggests some of its pictures, whether under great glass roofs or in the open ground in the summer. Warren H. Manning.

Plants for the seaside.

Very distinctive types of American scenery are to be found along our seashores. The very dark green mangrove thickets come to the salt-water's edge on the Florida and the Gulf coasts with a backing of savannas of tall grasses, fringes, and islands of palms, and gloomy thickets of cypress trees draped heavily with the hanging gray moss-like tillandsias. Farther north on the Atlantic coast are great hills and sweeps of sand-dunes, constantly shifting, overwhelming the stunted growth of pine, cedar, oak, and maple. Here the sand-reeds push out their long fingers of undergrowth and root-fibers to hold the sand in place, and they establish conditions for shrubs of huckleberry, rose, deciduous holly,

baccharis, and iva, and give protection to the young forest trees. Along the rock-bound New England coast are wind-swept compact masses and distorted individuals of cedar, pitch and Norway pine, corresponding in a way to the similar Monterey pine and cypress of the Lower California shore. With the pines and oaks of New England are maple and shad-bush with ground- cover thickets of bayberry, rose, beach plum, huckleberry, and baccharis, and compact evergreen mats of bearberry, crowberry, and hanging curtains of the prostrate juniper over faces of ledges. In the salt-marshes are great patches of the rich green sedges, and in the flats the brilliantly colored samphires.

The main thing to be considered in the development of this native growth is to let it alone when it is well established. On the drifting sands of the dunes and plains of the seashore, plantations of the beach- grasses are made and protected as well as plantations of pines and shrubs. In California certain lupines and acacias have been successful, together with the reed, in holding the drifting sand.

There are two kinds of seaside planting: the adaptation of the usual species used in the lawn and garden to seashore conditions for effects like the usual refined planting; the other the planting for definite seaside effects by the almost exclusive use of typical maritime flora. This second kind of seashore planting is rarely attempted, as natural seaside pictures are hard to imitate. The problem as usually conceived is one of finding plants that will endure seaside conditions.

The tidal marshes are always fully planted by nature, and man can add little to good purpose. In sheltered bays, especially where the soil is good, the existing flora usually differs little from that common to the region inland, and it is no great problem to add to it. Even on the most exposed sites there is a low herbage and stunted undergrowth while a few picturesque wind-twisted trees give special distinction to the landscape. Even evergreen trees are often found near the shore-line, and the black spruce on the Maine coast, pitch pine and red cedar in southern New England, Jersey pines on the sand-barren coast of the middle states, and farther south bald cypress, until this gives way to the tropical palmetto and mangrove.

Given partial shelter near the taller woody plants, many low shrubs and herbs may be grown near the seacoast. There are many showy natives in the maritime flora and many more may be brought from Europe, though few have been tried as yet. The salt in the soil or water is rather a minor factor to many plants. More important to their welfare is the light sandy or heavy clay soil on the seashore above the tide-line. For the woody plants, the great factor is the high wind which stunts the branches and foliage. Though the winds are high, yet the temperature is more even and usually higher than at the same latitude inland. This is a favorable factor.

Since the sheltered nooks are not at all difficult to plant, it is on the exposed sites where the soil is poor that the problem is usually specially considered. If the soil is wet just above the tide-line, the beaches need no planting to hold the soil in place. When the soil is light and dry and shifts with the wind, not only is root- hold for the plants difficult, but the wind-driven sand cuts the twigs and foliage. It is here, where wind and wave meet, that several grasses do good work in holding the shifting sand in place until larger-growing plants can get a foothold. Two good sand-binders are the beach-grass (Ammophila arenaria) and sea lyme- grass (Elymus arcnarius). These can be set out as small plants or the seeds sown upon the sand. Immediately branches or heavy straw should be thrown on to hold the sand for a time until the grass takes hold. When these tall grasses are established, they may be reinforced by lower tufted grasses, such as festuca and stipa.

Immediately back of this line of exposure should

begin the shelter-belt of trees and shrubs. This would consist of quick-growing trees, such as some of the willows, poplars, locusts, and some of the native cherries (Prunus serótina, P. pennsylvanica, P. virginiana, and the like). These are to be followed by more permanent material, such as the stiff thick-growing thorns and native crab-apples, and the species of oaks and other native forest trees that will live in light soil. Trees with large or compound foliage are to be avoided. Several coniferous evergreen trees thrive in conditions close to the salt-water, particularly the white spruce, pitch pine, red cedar, and their geographical relatives. A great many trees, even the sturdiest natives, cannot thrive under extreme conditions along the seashore.

Beneath the partial shelter of groups of trees, a great many shrubs will thrive under the handicap of sand and salt and wind. Particularly worthy of note are such common shrubs as Baccharis halimifolia, Lycium halimifolium, Ligustrum vulgäre, Shepherdia canadensis, Hippophae rhamnoides, Salix viminalis, Rhamnus Frángula, Cornus paniculata, Rhus copallina, and the like, and among the beach-grasses Prunus pumila, P. marítima, Myrica carolinensis, Cytisus scoparius, and the

species of Tamarix. To tie the shrubs together, several vines, as the native species of grapes, celastrus, and smilax, are very useful.

For details of color, masses of native or exotic perennial herbs may be grown. In dry soil select some of the species of Armeria, Sedum, Lathyrus, Asclepias, Liatris, Silène, Statice, Opuntia, and so on. In wet soil try the native species of Hibiscus, Iris, Acorus.Thalictrum, Lythrum, Solidago, and their near exotic relatives. The splash of salt-water is often fatal to many annuals, but those hardy annuals that like light warm soils, as portulaca and the Shirley poppy, will give masses of bright summer color. In the planting of herbs, there would be no special soil- preparation, or after-care, as refined garden effects are here out of place.

Three distinct purposes are served by a judicious seaside planting: shelter from strong winds to benefit the crops and man, checking of shore erosion and sand movement, and definite landscape effects. One should not so much strive to secure gardenesque effects but rather to intensify the natural features of the landscape.

Examples of successful seashore planting are numerous along the coast of New England where summer colonies of the wealthy have been established, parts of Long Island, and in many places along the coast of the Middle Atlantic states. The first work in seaside planting in this country was to prevent shore erosion, and from this work have developed the further uses for shelter and landscape effect. The problem of the shores of the Great Lakes is very similar, and much excellent

work has been undertaken along the shore of Lake Michigan, just north of Chicago. A consistent plan for the development of this particular shore has been advocated.

There are few books devoted wholly to the problem of seashore planting, and much experimenting is yet to be done. See "Seaside Planting of Trees and Shrubs," by Alfred Gaut (England) and "Gardens Near the Sea," by Alice Lounsberry. Warren H. Manning.

Succulent plants and their culture.

Succulents are fleshy plants of many kinds, but forming a cultural group well known as such to gardens. They are grown mostly for their striking or grotesque usually condensed form, and not for the verdurous character of foliage and spray; and some of them are notable for their showy bloom.

This aggregation of plants is comprised of genera and species of several very remotely related families. Cactacea, perhaps, contains the largest number of genera and species belonging to this group, although not all members of the family are strictly succulent in habit. Next in point of number is undoubtedly Amaryl- lidaceae, represented by Agave and Furcraea, with Euphorbiaceae as a close third, represented almost wholly by the great genus Euphorbia, although a few species of Pedilanthus are to be included. Crassulaceae comprises a large number of genera and species, nearly all of which are succulent in habit of growth, although comparatively few genera are common in cultivation. Conspicuous among these crassulaceous things may be listed Bryophyllum, Cotyledon, Crassula, Echeveria, Kalanchoe, Sedum, and Sempervivum. In Asclepiadaceae; the group is represented chiefly by Stapelia, . although, to a limited extent, one finds in cultivation representatives of Caralluma, Ceropegia, Duvalia, Echidnopsis, and Heurnia. Bromeliaceae gives two genera, Dyckia and Hechtia. Liliaceae contributes Aloe, Apicra, Gasteria, Haworthia, and a comparatively small number of species of Yucca. The great family of Compositae has representatives in a section of the genus Senecio. By some authors this group of senecios is considered as having generic standing under the name Kleinia.

In their wild forms, succulents are native to widely separated geographical areas, for the most part being indigenous to the arid or semi-arid regions of Asia, Africa, North and South America, and the West Indies. They have this in common, however, that the climatic and soil conditions of these remote habitats are comparable and such as to induce just the characteristic growths that these plants exhibit. For this reason they are usually brought together, in cultivation, and given the same or very similar treatment.

The use of succulents.

Many of the succulents are very attractive and ornamental grown either as single specimens, in groups of one class, or when different genera and species are brought together in mixed planting. For the most part the agaves are too large and bulky to be used to advantage other than as single specimens and a few species are not uncommonly employed in this way. Among these may be mentioned Agave picta, the variegated forms of A. americana, A. atrovirens, and A. Milleri. They are commonly grown in tubs to facilitate handling. Thus treated, they are housed in winter and in summer are placed in some favorable location on the lawn. Some of the best yuccas are hardy as far north as New England and the lake region. Yucca filamentosa. Y. gloriosa, and Y. glauca have received considerable attention. They are attractive as single specimens, in small groups on the lawn, or when used as border plants with a shrubbery background. In summer they produce large panicles of showy white waxy flowers which are very striking throughout the daytime and are especially so by twilight. The foliage being evergreen gives an added value to the plants for winter effects. A considerable number of this group of plants is well adapted for use in window- gardens. The very grotesqueness of some and the remarkable symmetry of others appeal to one's interest as much as do many gaudy and highly colored flowers of other classes of plants. Furthermore, a large proportion of these plants produce very excellent flowers, and frequently the resulting fruits are equally showy. Among the species valuable for individual pot- plants may be mentioned the following. Nearly all the echeverias are attractive in both foliage and flower characters. The globose and stemless rosette forms of sempervivum, commonly known as hen- and-chickens, are especially noteworthy. The production of numerous offsets and these appearing from beneath the foliage of the parent are very interesting and suggest the application of the common name. A very large number of the smaller cacti deserve consideration. The crown of flowers, followed by a like crown of colored fruits, is particularly pleasing. The numerous species of stapelias are easily grown and in the autumn produce a variety of strikingly showy flowers. Their one objectionable feature is the disagreeable odor of the freshly opened flowers, but this passes away in a very short time, while the flowers remain open for several days.

Not all the succulents lend themselves well to ornamental planting, although many can be thus used and very pleasing effects are produced. The small globular and short cylindrical cacti, with their great diversity in color of the plant-body and of the spines, give material for very effective combinations in design work. They have this advantage over foliage plants used in such work, inasmuch as their growth is so slight that the plants may be placed close together at the beginning and, without any special subsequent care, the design thus formed will retain its full outline throughout the season. A suggestion of the possibility of using cacti in this way is to be seen in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 3014). For this class of planting echeverias are undoubtedly the best material obtainable. The individual plants are equally as symmetrical and pleasing as the cacti, and the range of color variations among the species is fully as great. They have the added advantage that they can be propagated more easily and more abundantly than is possible with cacti. When a large number of mixed genera and species of succulents is available, exceptionally attractive plantings may be produced by a combination of these in more natural rather than formal designs. (Fig. 3015.) These appear to best advantage when planted among rocks and the soil surface covered over with gravel and sand. Such treatment not only gives a more natural appearance to the planting but is advantageous because it keeps the plant-bodies from coming in contact with the earth, which to most of them is very injurious if the soil is wet for any considerable time. In northern climates these beds must necessarily be but temporary combinations, to receive the plants for the summer months. In the south and southwest regions, where most of the succulents are quite hardy, the planting may be made permanent. In such cases very pleas-
ing effects are produced by planting on a sloping surface, in more or less raised beds or, better still, in rockeries.

The cultivation of succulents.

For a general rule, it may be stated that all succulents require an open porous sandy soil and perfect drainage.Other conditions, such as watering and atmospheric humidity and temperature,must vary somewhat with individuals or with special groups.Nearly all the species are very easily grown for seed,although in many cases vegetative reproduction is more available.In fact,some species have natural adaptions for propagation in this way as well as by seeds,and quicker returns may be had from the vegetative methods.The method employed in propagating cacti from seed has given equally excellent results when applied to all other genera of succulents and is therefore given in all essential detail.
Cacti are especially easy to start from seeds and with proper care may be readily brought to maturity. Experience teaches that such plants are better adapted to greenhouse treatment than those brought in from their native wilds. The latter suffer from the shock of radically changed conditions. For a germinating vessel, nothing can be more convenient than a 3- or 4-inch pot. If not fresh from the pottery, this should be thoroughly sterilized. Sterilization can be accomplished by soaking and washing in a dilute solution of copper sulfate (blue vitriol) and subsequently rinsing well; or the pots may be placed in a furnace till all organic matter has been destroyed. This sterilization is necessary for the reason that the seedlings must remain in the seed-pot for a considerable time before it is possible to transplant them. If not sterilized, the pot is likely soon to be covered with algœ or other organic growth and this, spreading over the surface of the soil, will quickly smother the young plants. For the same reason also, the soil should be thoroughly sterilized. This seeding soil should be very sandy with only sufficient humus mixed with it to furnish food for the young plant, of which a very little is sufficient. To insure perfect drainage, the pot is filled at least one-fourth full of broken bits of pots or charcoal, on top of which is placed the soil up to about 3/4 inch from the top. This is jarred down lightly and the surface leveled. The seeds are then scattered evenly over the surface and firmed down with a flat-faced cylindrical block. Over the seeds is placed a layer, about 3/8 inch deep, of fine gravel not

larger than a small pea. One of the chief drawbacks in growing cactus seedlings is their susceptibility to "damp off" in their younger stages. The protection afforded by this layer of gravel removes that danger. It also prevents any baking of the surface of the soil. The pots are then placed in a pan of water and allowed to remain until the water shows on the surface of the soil. Subsequent watering can be accomplished with a fine spray, applied to the surface of the gravel.

After planting, the seed-pots should be placed on a bench which is insulated in vessels of water or, tetter, in water with a surface coat of oil. This oil is to exclude ants, which have an especial liking for cactus seeds. Best results are secured in a humid atmosphere and a temperature of at least 70° F. The seedlings of most genera ought to appear within ten days, but opuntia may require a little longer. When the seedlings begin to show spines, they may be transplanted into small flats of earth into which a little more humus or sod soil has been mixed. They may remain in these flats for one to several years, depending on the rapidity of growth in different species. Eventually they are potted off as individual specimens or placed in the open ground.

It is only in the southwest states that many of the cactus plants are hardy enough to be permanently planted out-of-doors. Throughout the greater part of the United States they are tender and require greenhouse protection in winter. In this colder region they

Other conditions, such as watering and atmospheric *—TEay be planted in the open ground of a conservatory,

humidity and temperature, must vary somewhat with individuals or with special groups. Nearly all the species are very easily grown from seed, although in many cases vegetative reproduction is more available. In fact, some species have natural adaptations for propagation in this way as well as by seeds, and quicker returns may be had from the vegetative methods. The method employed in propagating cacti from seed has given equally excellent results when applied to all other genera of succulents and is therefore given in all essential detail.

where they thrive excellently, or they may be kept m pots in winter and, in the hottest part of summer, be removed to the outside and the pots plunged in beds.

Almost any cactus will readily strike root from cuttings. The cut surface must be allowed to dry for several days, until a corky layer has formed over it. The cutting may then be placed in sand to root, its base but little below the surface. If slender, the cutting should be tied in position to a supporting stick.

Grafting of cacti is almost unlimited in its possibilities, although employed only in particular cases. Small globose forms, such as mammillaria (Fig. 3016), echino- cactus, echinopsis, and others, are frequently grafted on some abundantly rooting cereus. Good stocks are provided by Cereus Bonplandii and C. tortuosus, though

almost any of the smaller columnar forms may be used. With these cions and stocks, it is necessary only to make a smooth horizontal cut across each and place the two flat surfaces together. The cion is held in position by placing soft strings or raffia over it and tying the ends firmly about the stock or to sticks thrust into the earth. Zygocaetus (the old epiphyllum), rhipsalis, and A porocactus (or Cereus) flagelliformis, which are epiphytic species, do well when grafted on slender upright species of cereus, but are more commonly placed on pereskia. If zygocactus is used as a stock, cleft-grafting is usually employed; if rhipsalis, either the cleft- or saddle-graft. Cristate forms treated as cuttings usually develop normal - formed new growths, but when grafted will continue the cristate character.

Although it is possible for cacti to survive a long drought in nat ure, yet when grown in pots they are seriously injured if their roots remain dry for any considerable time. They should not be placed on benches over the heating-pipes, where the soil soon dries. It is desirable to have the soil cool and the air overhead warm and rather dry for all desert forms. Contrary to a prevalent opinion, they require water. This should be applied in sufficient quantity only to keep the soil moist. A saturated soil quickly induces a soft watery rot which is fatal to the plant. This is especially likely if the soil contains any organic matter that has not been thoroughly decomposed. A small amount of lime in the soil is desirable, and soil should never be sour. Perfect drainage is necessary at all times. Many species of cereus. and phyllocactus (now properly epi- phyllum) climb over trees or rocks by means of aerial roots. These are indigenous to the more tropical regions and should be grown in a separate room from the desert forms, in one where the atmosphere can be kept at a higher degree of humidity. They should, also, be provided with suitable supports on which to climb. Zygocactus, rhipsalis, and other epiphytic cacti, may be successfully grown in this same room, but suspended in baskets in the way in which orchids are treated.

Agaves and furcreas, although readily grown from seeds, are more commonly propagated from suckers, or from the bulblets produced in abundance in the inflorescence of many species. For these plants a good soil is one of half sod and half sand. In nature they do not form deeply penetrating roots but widely spreading horizontal feeders. In pot or tub culture, the roots quickly reach the walls of the container and the plant very soon becomes pot-bound. Furthermore, if the container is allowed to remain dry for any time the roots are seriously injured thereby. When possible, it is better to plunge the pots or plant directly in open ground.

Euphorbias and pedilanthuses are best treated in every way as are the cacti. Their cultural methods differ but very little. While it is possible to grow them from cuttings, it is less easily accomplished than with cacti. The cut surface should be placed immediately in powdered charcoal to check the flow of milky sap. When the surface is thoroughly dry, the cutting may be rooted in finely broken charcoal or in sterilized sand. These plants are very susceptible to bacterial rot. Grafting is possible but difficult. It is sometimes employed to preserve a cristate growth of the cion.

Most genera of Crassulaceae are propagated more readily from seeds or from stem-cuttings. There are a few noteworthy exceptions, however. Bryophyllum can be more quickly and just as abundantly multiplied

3017. An elongated cactus form.—Lopho- cereus Schottii.

by placing matured healthy leaves flat on wet sand and kept in a moist warm atmosphere. In a very short time tiny plants will appear in the notches about the margin of the leaf (Fig. 673, Vol. I). When of sufficient size these may be removed and potted as individual plants. In most species of echeveria, multiplication is best accomplished by carefully removing the healthy mature leaves and placing them on sand as with bryo- phyllum. The base of the leaf must not be injured, for it is from this point that the one or more young plants lets develop. The leaf-like bracts on the flowering; stock of many species are very easily detached and propagate even more readily than the normal leaves. The above method is adapted to the acaulescent species of echeveria. With the caulescent species the rosette is cut from the top of the stem and treated as a cutting. The parent plant, thus pruned, will soon throw out a number of growths from the dormant lateral buds. As soon as these have formed rosettes of about an inch in diameter they, too, may be removed and will readily grow as cuttings.

Many Crassulaceae:, and echeverias in particular, suffer severely from attacks on their roots and the base of the stem by nematodes. For this reason only clean fresh or sterilized soil should be used in growing them. The various genera and species may be grafted back and forth but no special advantage is to be gained by the process. It is also possible to hybridize between the genera and the species, and a number of interesting results have been secured. Some of the echeveria hybrids have proved to be valuable additions to the group used in design work or for bordering other beds.

Asclepiadaceae; is most commonly represented in collections by the genus Stapelia. These plants fare excellently when given the treatment recommended for cacti. The chief difficulty in growing them, in the past, seems to have been their proneness to decay at the surface of the soil, especially in wintertime. This is easily prevented. See that the drainage is perfect and use porous sandy soil. Spread the roots out on the surface of the soil and cover not more than 1/2 inch deep with more soil. Over this place an inch layer of gravel about

the size of peas. Their susceptibility to decay at the surface is comparable to the damping-off of seedlings. The mulch of gravel is invaluable in remedying both maladies. Keep the soil moist but never saturated, and do not permit the roots to become excessively dry. This treatment will insure good continuous healthy growth and, in autumn, a reward of many attractive flowers. The other genera require like treatment. Grafting of genera and species is easily effected but of no special cultural value. Owing to the highly specialized structure of the flower in Asclepiadaceae;, it has thus far been impossible to effect artificial pollination, although natural hybrids through the agency of flies, are very common. This is especially true in stapelias. Bigeneric hybrids have been reported.

Dyckia and hechtia of the Bromeliaceae and yucca, and the aloe group of the Liliáceae;, should receive the same treatment as agave. The species are more commonly propagated by seeds, and the hybrids by division and stem-cuttings or division of the crown. Senecio (Kleinia), of the Composita;, may be propagated either by seeds or by cuttings. With them, also, grafting is possible. C. H. Thompson.

Topiary planting and garden architecture.

Topiary work includes sheared hedges, pollarded trees, clipped individual shrubs, whether shaped into simple, rounded, or pointed form, or into more elaborate designs. It includes the trimming of masses of foliage into the form of birds, beasts, furniture, architecture, and other conceits. The more intricate designs are usually attempted in evergreen plants.—Garden architecture comprises all structural or architectural ebments introduced into the landscape except the main buildings that are to serve the primary uses of a property. This definition thus includes all walls, trellages, posts, gates, pavilions, exedras, loggias, pergolas, shelters, fountains, bridges, seats, pavements; closely related with it are garden and lawn ornaments and furniture, such as statuary, vases, urns, dials, bird-fountains, lanterns, and the like. It includes the plain, the simple, and the rustic, as well as the more elaborate, ambitious, or ornate. Virtually all of the historical architectural styles are represented or suggested in the forms of garden architecture. For interesting illustrations and discussions of these subjects, the reader should consult Blomfield and Thomas, "The Formal Garden" (London), from which Figs. 3018 to 3023 are adapted. Compare, also, Fig. 3025. Fig. 3024 shows a common form of vase, used not so much for its architectural placing as for a receptacle in which to grow flowers.

Topiary and garden architecture, although distinct and separate, are nevertheless essentially related, both in origin and in use. Both have their inception in the virtually universal formality of all early landscape design, and historically and at the present day they frequently stand side by side as related elements of a design.

For many centuries gardening was conducted behind inclosing and protecting walls, a practice made necessary by the uncivilized conditions. In general, such inclosed gardens were rectangular or geometrically regular, and comparatively small. They existed in immediate proximity to the owner's dwelling or adjacent to the building. The necessity of conserving ground and of utilizing it most efficiently lead naturally to arrangement and planting in straight lines and rows. Utility having thus first determined a regular arrangement of plant-materials in close proximity to architecture, esthetic composition, in its turn, attracted the attention of more cultured man and formal design in landscape gradually evolved.

Both garden architecture and topiary are attributes of the formal in landscape design, which is determined

by lines, axes, and balance of parts. The inappropriate use of either results in inharmonious and bad design and constitutes an esthetic abuse.

The following plants are well adapted to topiary treatment :

Note: E moans plants evergreen.

P means plant mustpe protected in climate of Boston.
S means plant is semi-evergreen.

Acer campestre.
Acer platanoidee var. globosum.
Berbería Thunbergii.
E—fiuxiLs japónica.
EP—Buxus senmervirens.
Carpinus Betulua.
Carpinus Betulus var. globosa.
Catalpa bignonioides var. nana (=C. Bungei in the trade but not the true C. Bungei from northern China). A dwnrf variety of the southern catalpa often grafted high on upright stem. E—Chamsecyparis nootkatensis. E—Chamípcyparis obtusa var. nana (=Retinispora in the trade).
Cornus mas.
Cratagus Oxyacantha.
Evonymus alata. E—Evonymus radicans. EP—Ilex erenata. (A small-leaved variety of this has grown in the
Arnold Arboretum at Boston entirely unprotected.) E—Ilex glabra.
Ligustrum Ibota.
Ligustrum Ibota var. Regelianum.
PS—Ligustrum ovalifolium.
S—Ligustrum vulgäre.
E—Picea excelsa.
E—Picea orientalis.
E—Pinua Cembra. .
E—Pinus densiflora var. pumila.
E—Pinus montana.
E—Pinus montana var. Mughus.
E—ilhamnus cathartica.
E—Taxus cuspidata.
E—Taxus cuspidata var. brevifolia.
E—Tsuga canadensis.
Viburnum Opulus var. nanum.
Viburnum prunifolium.

In the growing of the plants for topiary use, no special care is required except, to be sure that the plants are well grown in the nursery, vigorous, and naturally thick-topped and fine-twigged. If the piece

is to be a hedge or continuous line, the plants should be very uniform in size and vigor when set and the ground should be prepared in uniform condition so that all the subjects will have equal chance. The plants should be set close together. Clipping should be begun soon after the plants are established to keep them close and to develop and preserve the side and lower branches; and the clipping should be practised several times each year. If the plants once overgrow, so that they become open and scraggly below, they can never be brought into good condition. Great care must be exercised to see that insects and disease do not get started, and that the plants suffer neither from drought nor wet feet and that they are well supplied with nourishment. See Hedges.

Topiary work, as well as architecture, appears in gardens of many different ages. In fact, the whole history of gardens but emphasizes the continued use of formal foliage and architecture as essential elements in their design. As stated by Blomfield, "The word 'garden' itself means an enclosed space, a garth or yard surrounded by walls, as opposed to an unenclosed field or woods. The formal garden, with its insistence on strong bounding lines, is, strictly speaking, the only 'garden' . . . ; and it is not till the decay of architecture, which began in the middle of the eighteenth century, that any other method of dealing with a garden was entertained." The common use of hedges for the inclosing of gardens doubtless came into use when the more settled conditions made it unnecessary to retain masonry walls for protection.

In the writings of Pliny the Younger, who was bom A. D. 62, is the most complete description of the Roman gardens. In a letter addressed to his friend Appolinaris, he describes the garden attached to his Tuscan villa: "In front of the Portico is a sort of Terrace, embellished with various figures, and bounded by a Box Hedge, from which you descend by an easy slope, adorned with the representation of divers animals in Box, answering alternately to each other; this is surrounded by a walk enclosed with tonsile evergreens, shaped into a variety of forms. Behind it is the Ges- tatio, laid out in the form of a Circus, ornamented in the middle with Box, cut into numberless different figures, together with a plantation of shrubs prevented by the shears from running up too high; the whole is fenced by a wall, covered with Box rising in different ranges to the top . . . ." After describing several summer-houses he proceeds: "In front of these agreeable buildings is a spacious Hippodrome encompassed on every side by Plane Trees covered with Ivy. Beneath each Plane are planted Box Trees, and behind thsse, Bays which blend their shade with that of the Plane Trees. This plantation forms a straight boundary on each side of the Hippodrome. . . . Having passed through these winding allies, you enter a straight walk, which breaks out into a variety of others divided

off by box hedges. In one place you have a little meadow; in another the Box is cut into a thousand different forms; sometimes into letters expressing the name of the master; sometimes that of the artificer; whilst here and there little Obelisks rise intermixed alternately with fruit Trees; when on a sudden you are surprised with an imitation of the negligent beauties of rural Nature, in the center of which lies a spot surrounded with a knot of dwarf Plane Trees. Beyond these is a walk . . . where also Trees are cut into a variety of names and shapes. ... At the upper end is an Alcove of white marble shaded with Vines, supported by four small Pillars of Corystian Marble. From this bench the water, gushing through several small pipes, falls into a stone Cistern beneath, from whence it is received into a fine polished Marble Basin, so artfully contrived, that it is always full without ever overflowing. . . . Corresponding to this is a fountain, which is incessantly emptying and filling; for the Water, which it throws up to a great height, falling back again into it, is, by means of two openings, returned as fast as it is received. Fronting the Alcove stands a Summer House of exquisite Marble, whose doors project into a green enclosure; as from its upper and lower windows the eye is presented with a variety of different Verdures. Next to this is a little private closet .... Here also a fountain rises and instantly disappears; in different quarters are disposed several marble seats, which serve, as well as the Summer House, as so many reliefs wnen one is wearied by walking. Near each seat is a little fountain; and throughout the whole Hippodrome, several small Rills run murmuring along, wheresoever the hand of Art thought proper to conduct them, watering here and there spots of verdure, and in their progress refreshing the whole."

The Romans, establishing themselves in England, built gardens in which topiary work was doubtless to be found. Otherwise, in England prior to about the eleventh or twelfth centuries, gardening as an art of design and taste can scarcely be said to have existed. It is recorded, however, that in 1123 Henry the First formed a park at Woodstock, and it is the first of which authentic record has been preserved. It was probably intended chiefly as a game-preserve but contained, however, a labyrinth. And it is recorded as the custom of the times for the nobility to develop pleasure-gardens in the orchards beyond the walls of their castles, the chief embellishments of which consisted in "plants cut into monstrous figures, labyrinths, etc."

It is in the gardens of England of the early Renaissance periods and shortly before this time that the most extensive use of topiary work is found, in the greatest varietv and elaboration of form. Topiary art was practised, howeyer, in all European countries for centuries. It has been given particular and peculiar expression in each of several countries. The Dutch developed the art of carving in verdure at an early date and many strange and curious forms in box, along with many rare and flowering plants, were introduced into England from Holland. In France and Italy it was not so much a large variety of elaborate and intricate topiary as an extensive use of the simpler forms of clipped foliage as a means of gaining effect in larger, more monumental, and pretentious landscape arrangements than were elsewhere undertaken. The architectural gardens of the Italian Renaissance exemplify the effective and appropriate use of architecture in the garden. Here trees, naturally formal in habit, are combined with sheared hedges and edgings. These wonderful gardens teach the remarkable effectiveness

of such method in design when executed by the master hand.

The designers of the tremendous and monumental landscape arrangements executed in France in the later Renaissance periods gained distinctive effects by the very bold use of sheared foliage; they virtually carved their broad axially related plans out of the woodland. The "Bosque" in French design is comparable to the "Topiary grotesque" in the English. The French parterre gardens, in which intricate and elaborate geometrical designs are worked out in low sheared foliage or bed edging and white or colored gravel, are another expression developing from the same original motive as produced the topiary bird.

In the colonial gardens in America topiary work was common, mostly in the simpler form of clipped hedges, generally of box, and boxedged parterre gardens. Remains of many of these old gardens are still to be found in the Atlantic states, and a few old gardens are still in a good state of preservation and cultivation. The box-garden at Mount Vernon is perhaps the most noted, and is in an excellently preserved and restored state at the present time. See Plate XLVI, Vol. III.

A moderate amount of interesting and good topiary work is under way in gardens in this country today, and a few nurserymen are in position to furnish good clipped specimens in a variety of designs. The use of topiary work other than simple clipped hedges should be carefully and advisedly undertaken, however, for it is appropriate only when the whole architectural style of a property makes it suitable and when it becomes an inherent part of the scheme as a whole.

Garden architecture.

Any structure or structural element placed out-of-doors in nature takes on the significance of architecture, and must bear judgment as such. Landscape as such is either nature's work or man's work with nature's materials in their natural form. The placing of architecture in the landscape is always the combining of the obviously artificial with the natural, and the two must be brought into harmony. It is a deplorable fact that when, with the exercise of judgment and good taste, it is possible to attain harmony in the least costly as well as in the most expensive, so much bad and inharmonious architecture encumbers the landscape.

Under any circumstances, architecture becomes to some extent a feature of accent in the landscape, at jeast within its immediate surroundings. It is emphatic in contrast with its setting and always functions as focalizing the composition of which it forms a part.

In general, it is wiser to attempt a simple design and insure its substantial construction than to undertake the ornate in garden architecture. There is a world of interesting precedent in simple designs for the many smaller architectural embellishments of the garden, such as summer-houses or pools, pavements, seats, dial- bases, boxes, tubs, jars, and other ornaments and accessories. The use of simple boxes or ordinary pots
for flowers and specimen plants is to be encouraged, and the conversion of such inappropriate materials as plumbing fixtures into garden ornaments is to be condemned. The usual cast-iron vases and the like are marks of a passing era of bad taste. In lawn pottery, in the form of pots and vases, excellent designs are now to be had, as also of sun-dials.
No one consideration is more important than that the architectural style of even the simplest seat or sun-dial be similar to that found in the larger architecture of the building or buildings to which the landscape development may be related.
A number of reputable firms now produce substantially made garden furniture in considerable variety of good designs and in many different materials. Particularly good garden seats and garden pottery are now obtainable at reasonable prices and may be found in shops in some of the larger cities. The advertisements and trade catalogues of the manufacturing concerns are interesting and instructive.
However, the obtaining of individually well-designed and substantial articles having been assured, there remains still the selection of appropriate patterns. Garden architecture should correspond to the style, architectural and otherwise, of a property as a whole. Its appropriate use is its justification.
Rustic work is fitting and often most appropriate in a naturalistic setting. It is, however, architecture and should be so designed as to bear analysis as such. It should be structural in its line, and substantial. It is best when simple and unobtrusive in design. It is seldom appropriate when fantastic or whimsical. The occasional use of rustic work in such way that in its rough character it appears almost to have grown up with the surrounding wild conditions is very pleasing, particularly good unobtrusive seats, bridges, and shelters.
Eugene D. Montillon.

Planting for winter effect.
Winter is the season when there is the least sunshine, and the least sign of life and color in vegetation. As a floral festival, Christmas ranks second to Easter, owing doubtless to the relative scarcity and higher cost of materials. The ideal is for every family to grow its own flowers for Christmas gifts, but most persons have to content themselves with less personal products purchased from the florist. Holly is the symbol of Christmas as the lily is of Easter, each exemplifying the dominant color of the season. The popular demand in winter is for signs of hope and courage—hence the red berry, flower, or ribbon.
The phrase "winter-garden" has been used for a great variety of projects, indoors and out, ranging from the metropolitan restaurant with a few bay trees in tubs, to a winter home in Florida where one may work outdoors every day and all day. Notable progress has been made along many lines since 1900 in the art of living the year round amid beautiful vegetation.

Planting Indoor winter-gardens.
Perhaps the oldest use of the phrase winter-garden refers to a type of unheated or little-heated greenhouse which was popular in England when plants from the Cape and Australia were fashionable, but was generally a museum of potted plants rather than a garden. A new stage began in America about 1905, when Mrs. J. W . Stewart, of Glen Ridge, New Jersey, made a real garden under glass. (C. L. A. 13:168-70.) It has a broad lawn to tread upon, instead of narrow concrete walks, and in place of potted plants raised in tiers for show, there is a continuous border 3 to 4 feet wide, with bulbs and other flowers growing out of the earth at the familiar garden level. The temperature is that of a living-room. Another new stage began in 1906 when the conservatories in Garfield Park, Chicago, were completed. These were not the first attempts at landscape gardening under glass on a large scale, but they are believed to be the most impressive series of indoor nature-pictures in the world. Portable greenhouses and window-gardens now make it possible even for renters to have something more than a few potted plants on the window-sill. Those who can afford no glass may at least force twigs in water, preferring the early bloomers, like peach, plum, and forsythia to the late bloomers, like lilac and dogwood. In this line, the most notable achievement, of late, is the forcing of stems 6 to 8 feet high, by keeping them in a slightly heated attic until wanted for the living-room.

Planting Outdoor winter-gardens.
The southern states have a winter climate that makes outdoor work pleasant, and a landscape rich in types of beauty, as evergreen magnolias, long-leaved pines, and winter roses. Southern winter-gardens have their problems, but they can receive less notice here than the more acute problems of northern climates. A country with an evergreen grass, like Ireland, has a great advantage over America for winter beauty. English children are well protected from bitter winds by the omnipresent walled-garden or high-hedged home grounds. The formal winter-garden of England is often merely a straight walk, between high walls of clipped yew. Wordsworth's winter-garden is an early example of the naturalistic winter-garden, i. e., a sheltered spot surrounded by informal masses of trees and shrubs noted for their winter attractions.
In the northern states, however, it is neither safe nor pleasant to garden out-of- doors every day, and the winter landscape is commonly bleak, ugly, bare, or commonplace. Our most pressing problem, usually, is shelter from winds. On the plains and prairies many homes are surrounded by shelter-belts, but the landscape effect is not the best, owing to the artificial outlines of the farmsteads, the ill-concealed barnyards, and the inferior species used—soft maple, box elder, Norway spruce. Windbreaks in straight lines, protecting orchards or stock, sometimes give a spirited army-like effect, but may become monotonous in a country where everything seems to be rectangular. In the East naturalistic shelter-belts are commoner. The practice of moving large evergreens with a half-frozen ball has developed notably since 1900, and full-grown evergreen hedges can be secured to shelter winter playgrounds. Most persons see little beauty in the northern winter landscape. It is true that the East has little brilliant color or living green compared with England, China, or Japan, while the prairies and great plains have still less. Nature-study, however, opens the eyes of the people to a new world of beauty in outline and structure of trees, their trunks, and winter buds. The universal instinct for bright color, however, ought also to be gratified, and every family can receive and give satisfaction by means of foundation planting. Unfortunately, New York and Philadelphia may not have monumental evergreens to the extent that every London yard has box and holly, aucuba and veronica, yet many eastern homes may have mountain laurel on the sunny sides and rhododendron on the shady sides. Among the conifers most persons prefer the brilliant quick-growing but short-lived Japan cypresses, while lovers of permanence are willing to wait for Canadian and Japanese yew, Mugho pine, and Canadian juniper. Two superb evergreen vines, European ivy and evergreen bittersweet (Evonymus radicans var. vejeta), enliven house walls of brick and stone. On sunny days the red branches of Siberian dogwood are a cheery sight. Among the shrubs with brightly colored berries, the favorite for foundation planting is the Japanese barberry, largely because its red fruits are attractive all winter.

Types of winter-gardens.
Evergreen winter-gardens,—Perhaps the oldest type of winter-garden is the pinetum, which is primarily a collection of evergreens, but is also full of beauty during the period when other trees are leafless. One example is the Hunnewell collection at Wellesley, Massachusetts, part of which is doubled in beauty by reflection in a lake. Another example is the conifer valley in the Arnold Arboretum, which has a brook meandering through the center, while the heights are crowned by trees, the cultivated specimens on one side being balanced by a noble hemlock forest on the other. In the pinetum at Highland Park, Rochester, New York, the walk runs through the grassy center of the valley, with dwarf evergreens ascending the banks, these being disposed at convenient levels and distances for the eye, so that the different textures may be enjoyed to the full. The apparent height of this shallow valley is increased by planting the ridges with the tallest evergreens.

Shrubby winter-gardens. — Every arboretum or botanical garden is likely to have a fruticetum, or collection of shrubs. A garden composed almost exclusively of shrubs is attractive throughout the growing season, as well as during winter. There is a naturalistic winter-garden at Llyndanwalt, Abington, Pennsylvania, where a wood of about an acre near the house has been provided with features of year-round interest, including a rhododendron collection, a dense underplanting of young hemlocks, and a border of shrubbery selected with special reference to winter beauty. From the outside, these shrubs give privacy, shelter, and color in delightful contrast to the ordinary wooded pasture, which is rather colorless. From the interior these shrubs animate the trails and enliven the outlooks that have been purposely left toward the best features of the landscape.

Skating-ponds.—It is now the fashion to border skating-ponds with shrubs that have brightly colored twigs. On sunny days these furnish bold masses of color that harmonize with the vigorous mood and gay costumes of the skaters. After providing for the casino and for the snow that must be removed from the ice, there is generally ample room for a collection of showy dogwoods, willows, and wild roses. At Rochester, New York is a charming example, the shrubs being allowed to interlace like an old woodland border, so that the color of the twigs steals upon one unconsciously.

Gardenesque effects.—That it is possible to spoil even a winter landscape by overdoing color has been much demonstrated recently in parks, where nurserymen and gardeners have been allowed to plant large masses of Siberian dogwood and salmon-barked willow, the brightest of all winter reds. Such swamp-type plants are particularly inappropriate and gaudy on hilltops. A more poetic effect is produced by the "sunset willow" of the prairie states, a species of uncertain botanical status known to collectors as Saliae longifolia. It is common along middle-western streams. The most brilliant but least tasteful effects produced with shrubs that have brightly colored bark are in reality the carpet- bedding system. The willows and dogwoods are cut to the ground every year or two, in order to produce the greatest number of showy shoots, which are kept at a height of about 3 feet. This system sacrifices height, habit, and dignity to display. A standard park effect is white pine bordered by Siberian dogwood, which is about the strongest contrast that is in good taste on lawns. Perhaps the strongest contrast furnished by nature in the North is hemlock and canoe birch.

Winter walks.—The cheapest and most practical winter-garden for the largest number, may be a simple walk leading to the front, back, or side door, bordered by shrubs and trees, of which half or more have winter attractions. Brick set on concrete is considered pleasanter to the eye and foot than concrete, and is drier than grass. The tapestry type of brick set on edge is expensive, but gives a rich texture.

Materials for Winter-gardening.
One hundred and twenty-eight trees and shrubs that have pronounced winter beauty were listed by John Dunbar from the Rochester parks, not including the evergreens or plants that lose their vivid color before the end of the holidays. With such a wealth of material there should be little excuse for bare and ugly surroundings. Only the classes of materials may be mentioned and exemplified here.

Broad-leaved evergreens.—These are often more expensive than the narrow-leaved evergreens, and of smaller stature, but they have more ample foliage and frequently showier flowers or fruits. All require special care. Examples are American holly, mountain laurel, Rhododendron catawbiense and R. maaeimum, evergreen thorn, trailing myrtle, evergreen bitter-sweet, box.and its substitute, Ileae crenata var. microphylla. The English standard of beauty is European holly, laurel, and hybrid rhododendrons, because the darkest and shiniest foliage is commonly thought to be more beautiful than the duller and yellow-green type. A more practical standard for our climate is furnished by American holly, laurel, and rhododendron. In nurseries where both classes of plants may be observed, the European kinds are unquestionably rich and aristocratic, but sound a foreign note, while the native kinds have a cheery, sunny color that is eloquent of adaptation to our climate and scenery. The same principle applies to the narrow-leaved evergreens, Irish yew being commonly but mistakenly preferred to Canadian or Japanese yew. Semi-evergreens, like Hall's honeysuckle, are listed in this work under Autumn-Gardening.

Narrow-leaved evergreens.—The European standards are Scotch and Austrian pine, Norway spruce, silver fir, Irish juniper, and Irish yew. These are climatic misfits in America and constitute the bulk of the evergreen planting east of the Rockies that proves unsatisfactory. The American standards are white pine, hemlock, Douglas spruce, concolor fir, red cedar, and Canadian yew. The types of beauty represented in the two lists are not closely comparable.

Deciduous trees and shrubs.—Though lacking in brilliant color, the following are standards of quiet beauty. Marked for their outline or habit are pin oak, sweet gum, white birch, pepperidge, sassafras, tulip tree, white oak, and sycamore. Noted for their winter buds are flowering dogwood, beech, shagbark, balm of Gilead, honey locust, swamp bay, sassafras, and pussy willow. Familiar by their trunks are beech, birch, shagbark, sycamore, white oak, tulip tree, sweet gum, flowering dogwood, and mountain-ash.
Shrubs with brightly colored berries.—These materials do more to transform ordinary city lots than any others here mentioned. Shrubs cost less than evergreens mature more quickly than trees, are fairly permanent, and are cheap. Of the shrubs with decorative fruits, there are two main groups based on duration. Those which are attractive all winter, like barberries, must be reckoned more valuable than those which drop by New Year's or cease to be attractive then, like snow- berry and Indian currant. Each of these groups may be divided again on a basis of color. Red is the favorite color, because it seems to give the most warmth at the time it is most needed. Consequently the most popular shrubs for winter berries are the common and Japanese barberries, the multiflora and prairie roses, and the high-bush cranberry, all of which retain their red berries until spring. Of the other red berries, Viburnum dilatatum lasts until April; Japanese bitter-sweet until March; Viburnum Sargentii until February; while the following are attractive until February: Most species of Evonymus and Cotoneaster, Ilex verticillata, and red chokeberry (Aronia arbulifolia). The red-berried species tend to produce yellow varieties, but they have less popular appeal. Blue berries of great beauty are borne by the familiar white fringe and the little known symplocos. Theoretically black is an unattractive color, yet practically the black fruits appear well, especially against the snow, the most familiar example being the massive cluster of California privet, while the open cluster of Regel's privet has more grace. Viburnums furnish many dark berries, as do the following choice plants: Acanthopanae sessiliflorus, Rhamnus carthartica, rhodotypos, PhellUodendron amurense, Rhamnus dahu- rica, and Aronia mclanocarpa. Theoretically white should be the chilliest and least attractive color in winter, yet the snowberry is probably the only bush that is planted almost wholly for its winter berries, and its popularity continues although it often loses its attractiveness before Thanksgiving. The small waxy berries of candleberry (Myrica) are an agreeable sight till January, but this plant is more famous for its fragrance.
Shrubs with brightly colored twigs.—These materials are even more brilliant than shrubs with brightly colored berries. The ordinary 2- to 3-foot bush of barberry has few berries, when planted in the fall, while a Siberian dogwood of the same size is a consistent mass of red from planting day in October until April. These materials are showier on sunny days than clouded ones, and look best when the sun is at one's back. They do tolerably in the smallest yards of large and smoky cities but do not develop the brightest colors in dense shade.
In this group, also, red is the favorite color, the most popular being Siberian dogwood, with the Britzensis willow a fair second, the latter being unsuitable for foundation planting. Vivid color is often confined to twigs or wood a year or two old, as in the Lindens, but a four-year-old Siberian dogwood is showy from the ground up. Those who like a change from the Siberian sometimes plant the silky dogwood, which has purplish red wood, or the quieter-toned stolonifera, but the latter needs a moist situation and is too scaly for foundation planting. Yellow branches are more popular than yellow berries. Willows furnish half a dozen yellow kinds, dogwood two good ones, and yellow poplar one. Vivid green wood is furnished by kerria, Forsythia viridissima, sassafras, Colutea arborescens, and a variety of Cornus sanguínea.
Winter flowers.—The only hardy winter flower of importance is the Christmas rose (Helleborus niger), which blossoms in the North amid or under the snow any time from November to March. Winter crocuses are merely a coldframe hobby for enthusiasts. Scillas and the other March-blooming bulbs are often seen blooming in the snow, but they are essentially spring flowers. A unique and wonderful winter beauty is Pieris floribunda, which seems to be crowned by white flowers, but these are really buds. They are all the more wonderful because naked, and all the more beautiful because set off by evergreen foliage.
Wilhelm Miller.

Planting on walls. (Fig. 3030.)
Wall-gardening and walled gardens are two different departments of horticulture. The walled garden is an old English development based on the need of protecting fruit from thieves and on the fact that grapes and peaches do not ripen in the cool summers of England without extra heat, such as a south wall gathers. Out of these conditions have grown high brick and stone walls aggregating hundreds of miles in extent and forming a familiar sight in the English landscape. The walls have come to be covered with all sorts of fancy fruitS trained like vines. They also shelter many subtropical shrubs trained as climbers, which otherwise could be grown only under glass. Although these walls are often crowned with broken glass or spikes, they are generally beautiful in themselves, or are made so by a clothing of vines. Moreover, earth-filled holes are often purposely left on top for the growing of rock-loving flowers, such as wallflowers, snapdragons, wall pepper, Kenilworth ivy, houseleeks, and wild pinks. Time adds the crowning touch of loveliness by encouraging mosses on the shady side and lichens on the sunny. This type of garden is not common in America because it is very costly to make and also to maintain, owing to the higher cost of skilled labor for training fruits. Moreover, a wall is not necessary in our own hot summer climate for the ripening of grapes and peaches. However, the walled garden will gradually increase in numbers, for several reasons: It offers better protection from thieves than hedges or shrubbery; it makes a kitchen-garden yield from one to three months longer by giving protection from cutting winds and frost; it makes a sheltered outdoor playground for children in winter; it makes an effective background for hardy perennial flowers; and it gives privacy and charm, which gardens open to every eye do not possess.
Wall-gardening, on the other hand, is a modern application, growing out of the English passion for alpine flowers and based largely upon the fact that many of these exquisite flowers perish in the hardy borders, because of the wet English winters, but flourish permanently in the chinks of a wall, where they get better drainage. This is true of wallflowers and snapdragons, which have glorified many ruins for centuries, while on the level ground they are short-lived. Thus, dry-walling became fashionable at the beginning of the twentieth century. It was customary, whenever grading operations left a bank of earth, to put in a retaining wall, avoiding cement, and laying alpine plants between the stones. The popularity of this type of garden is attested by Gertrude Jekylls "Wall- and Water-Gardens," which has thirty-three plates illustrating the construction and main floral effects. Steps are commonly made in such a way that nearly all parts not actually needed for treading are filled with carpets and cushions of rock-loving flowers.
In America, wall-gardening was welcomed as an opportunity to replace some of the artificial, monotonous, and ill-kept grass-banks by retaining-walls clothed with the natural and varied beauty of flowers. Unfortunately, much of the most refined beauty of English wall-gardens, such as the mossy saxifrages give, is impossible here, because the hot summers are unfavorable to the choicer alpines. Analysis of the four largest and most successful examples of wall-gardening known in America in 1914 shows that great and new beauty has been achieved in this way, but that the largest floral effects are made by plants that are not particularly associated with mountains or rocks and which are easy to grow in ordinary gardens without the expense of dry-walling. Such desert plants as the houseleeks and stonecrops spread over large areas. Other successes are rock cress (Arabis albida), woolly chickweed (Cerastium tomentosum), snow-in-summer, woodruff, wild pinks, alpine forget-me-nots, Kenilworth ivy, and veronicas. Such carpets, however, do not have the charm of the dainty rosettes and mossy cushions of the high-altitude alpines, such as saxifrages, primroses, gentians, and edelweiss.
It is possible to have some of these finer things, if one does not stuff the walls with too much earth. This practice, which seems reasonable to every beginner, encourages the plants to make roots within the walls, and such roots are naturally destroyed by the first hot weather. It is better to give them a little grit and only a pinch of earth, so as to force the plants to send long roots through the walls into the earth banks where they will find the moisture, coolness, and drainage that are demanded by high alpines.
Steps have been successfully filled in America with chink-loving flowers, but- most gardeners are conservative about experimenting, declaring that the colder winters of America will cause damage to stone and flowers by the heaving action of frost. It is certainly unwise to have wide spaces between stones filled with material that will expand too much, but the aim should
be to give the plants as little root-room and food as possible in order to encourage their rooting outside the stonework. Wilhelm Miller.

Screen-planting.
From the landscape architect's point of view; screen- planting may be used to hide unsightly objects, to afford protection from prevalent winds, to give a background to the house, to lend an air of privacy and seclusion, or sometimes to add an ornamental feature. It may take the form of deep border planting, narrow hedge lines or mere vine-covered screens. Trees, shrubs, and vines are all available; but, whatever is used, the denser its habit of growth, the better screen it will make. Other things being equal, evergreens are better than deciduous plants, for the latter lose their leaves in winter. However, if evergreens are not available, there are still many deciduous plants whose dense habit of growth make a good screen even after the leaves are gone. A border planting, as in Fig. 2999, is really a screen against objects beyond; so also are such cover-plantings as those in Figs. 3000, 3001, 3031 and others. The real screens, however, are those plantings made for this particular purpose, mostly narrow in form but dense.

Vines for screen-planting.
For brick, stone, tree-trunks, or other solid surface.

Deciduous:

Hydrangea petiolaris (climbs by root-like holdfaste).
Parthenoeissus quinquefolia var. Engelmannii. A variety of Virginia creeper with disks, or suckers, on the ends of the ten- drils, which enable the plant to fasten itself to a surface.
Parthenocissus triouspidata var. Veitchii.

Evergreen:
Evonymus radicans var. vegeta (climbs by root-like holdfasts).
Hedera helix. Somewhat tender; in the N. should be planted where it will be shaded from winter sun or at least have its roots thoroughly mulched and the ground shaded by low growth about its base; climbs by root-like holdfasts.

Rapid-growing vines for banks or unsightly objects. Annuals;

Boussingaultia baselloides. Twining tender perennial treated as an annual, growing from 10 to 15 feet a season; roots must be taken up and stored away from frost.

Calonyction aculeatum (twining).
Echinocystis lobata (self-seeding; tendrils).
Humulus japonicus (twining).
Ipomoea purpurea (twining).
Phaseolus multiflorus (tendrils).
Herbaceous perennials (dying down to the ground but springing up again from the root):
Ipomoea pandurata (twining). This and next have fleshy roots and may become a nuisance if allowed to spread.
Pueraria hirsuta. This is known also in commerce as Dolichos japonicus; grows 40 feet in a season; twining.
Woody perennials (woody stem persisting above ground).
Actinidia arguta (twining).
Aristolochia macrophylla (A. Sipho) (twining).
Celastrus scandens (twining).
Lonicera japónica var. Halliana (twining).
Lycium chínense and L . halimifolium. Both are shrubs with recurving trailing stems which do not twine. Plant must be fastened to its support. Excellent to hold banks, but very vigorous and may become a nuisance.

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==Cultivation==
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===Propagation===
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===Pests and diseases===
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==Species==


==Gallery==
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<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

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[[Category:Categorize]]

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