Changes
From Gardenology.org - Plant Encyclopedia and Gardening Wiki
Jump to navigationJump to searchno edit summary
:''Disambiguation: other uses of the term [[Log]]ging''
'''Logging''' is the process in which [[tree]]s are cut down usually as part of a timber harvest. Timber is harvested to supply raw material for the [[Wood processing|wood products industry]] including logs for [[sawmills]] and [[wood pulp|pulp wood]] for the [[pulp and paper industry]]. Logging can also remove wood for [[forest management]] goals. Logging is controversial due to its perceived [[environmental]] and [[aesthetic]] impacts. Well planned and well managed logging operations often have very low impact on the environment.
== Use of the term logging in Forestry ==
In [[forestry]] the term logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, often a mill. In common usage however the term may be used generally to mean a range of forestry or silviculture activities. For example the practice of the removal of a small number of commercially valuable trees from the forest has been called [[selection cut#High-Grading|selective logging]] sometimes confused with [[selection cut]]. <ref>[http://www.na.fs.fed.us/stewardship/newsltr/newsletter/04fall_stewardship.pdf]Just say no to High Grading </ref>[[Illegal logging]] refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft. An example of illegal logging is cedar theft, which is most common in the American Pacific Northwest. Timber theft in all forms is quite rare in the United States. In common usage what is sometimes called clearcut logging is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvest or silviculture method and is simply called [[clearcutting]] or block cutting. In the forest products industry logging companies may be referred as logging contractors.
Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging. Submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded to create artificial [[dam]]s and [[reservoir]]s, and trees have started to be felled there too (see [[underwater logging]]).
== Logging and forestry ==
[[Image:Zrywka drewna w Masywie Śnieżnika PL.jpg|thumb|right|Horse Logging in [[Poland]]]]
The two main [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholder]]s in most logging operations are the landowner and the logging contractor. Prior to a large harvest a landowner will often hire a consulting [[forester]]. Owners of large industrial tracts may employ their own foresters. During planning for the harvest the forester will determine how best to meet the landowner's objectives, including the [[silvicultural]] system to be used, even-aged or uneven-aged management, layout of roads and landings. If a [[selection cutting|selection cut]] is planned the forester will mark the trees intended to be cut or if a [[Clear-cutting|clear cut]] which blocks are to be harvested. A well-managed forest will be harvested according to a [[forest management]] plan. This plan should include areas off-limits to cutting such as sensitive [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]], [[vernal pool]]s and [[riparian zone]]s.
A logging contractor may get paid according to the volume of wood harvested.
== Logging methods ==
The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the following three are considered industrial methods:
;Tree-length logging
:Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is [[Log bucking|bucked]] and loaded on a truck. This leaves the [[Slash (logging)|slash]] (and the nutrients it contains) in the cut area where it must be further treated if wildland fires are of concern.
;Full-tree logging
:Trees are felled and transported to the roadside with top and limbs intact. The trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing. In areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of clean electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the entire tree including branches and tops. <ref>[http://www.ceres.ca.gov/snep/pubs/web/PDF/VII_C44.PDF ceres.ca.gov]</ref> This technique removes both nutrients and soil cover from the site and so can be harmful to the long term health of the area if no further action is taken, however, depending on the species, many of the limbs are often broken off in handling so the end result may not be as different from tree-length logging as it might seem.
;[[Cut-to-length logging]]
:Trees are felled, delimbed, bucked, and sorted (pulpwood, sawlog, etc.) at the stump area, leaving limbs and tops in the forest. [[Harvester (forestry)|Harvester]]s fell the tree, [[delimbing|delimb]] and [[log bucking|buck]] it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by the [[forwarder]].
[[Image:Washington winch panorama.jpg|thumb|350px|left|The [[Washington Iron Works Skidder]] in Nuniong is the only one of its kind in Australia, with engine, spars and cables still rigged for work]]. This method is usable for smaller timber on ground flat enough that fordwarders can operate, but does not work well on steep slopes.
== Operations ==
[[Image:Log driving in Vancouver.jpg|thumb|[[Timber rafting]] to [[Vancouver]], B.C.]]
A [[timber]] harvest can consist of the following operations, although not necessarily in the following order.
;Pre-logging
:''Planning'' - Identifying optimal timing, access, and layout of harvest.
:''Permitting'' - Regulatory review can include public notification, environmental assessment, taxes, and fees.
:''Sale'' - Many [[timberland]] owners employ their own [[loggers]], while others hire or sell the right to log to a logging company.
:''Accessing'' - [[Logging roads]], logging camps, and weighing stations are built or repaired as needed.
:''Marking'' - The area or individual trees to be harvested are clearly identified.
:''Measuring'' - Assessing the volume of timber that will be produced by the harvest.
:''Marketing'' - Arranging supply contracts with timber customers, this may be undertaken through competitive sale methods or as part of a negotiation with preferred customers.
;Logging
:''Felling'' - The standing tree is cut down or felled by [[chainsaw]], [[harvester (forestry)|harvester]], or [[feller buncher]].
:''Processing'' - The tree is turned into logs by removing the limbs ([[delimbing]]) and cutting it into logs of optimal length ([[log bucking|bucking]]).
[[Image:Helicopter logging.jpg|thumb|A helicopter moving cedar wood from the inside of a forest to a road.]]
:''Stump to landing'' - The felled tree or logs are moved from the stump to the landing. Ground vehicles can [[skidder|pull]], [[forwarder|carry]], or [[shovel logging|shovel]] the logs. [[Cable Logging|Cable]] systems can pull logs to the landing. Logs can also be flown to the landing by [[helicopter]].
:'' Landing to mill '' - The logs are commonly transported to the [[Sawmill|mill]] or [[Seaport|port]] by truck, but in the past, this has been done by [[train]], by [[Log driving|driving the logs downstream]], or by pulling them as a floating [[Timber rafting|log raft]].
;Post-logging
:'' Burning'' - [[Prescribed burn|Burning]] logging debris and other woody material on the site can reduce future [[forest fire|fire]] risk and release nutrients.
:'' [[Herbicide]]'' - Eliminating competing seedlings and brush to speed growth of the planted seedlings
:'' Ground preparation '' - [[Cultivation]] of the soil to create suitable planting positions. This operation may include some element of land drainage in wet areas if soil saturation affects seedling survival / growth potential.
:'' Replanting'' - Dropping seeds or manual [[Treeplanting|planting]] of [[seedlings]]
:'' Road deconstruction'' - Subsequent erosion and landsliding from old roads can be reduced by installing waterbars, pulling fill from stream crossings, and putting excavated materials back to reform the original topography.
==Logging and safety==
[[Image:Log cutter02.jpg|thumb|Computerized heavy machinery log cutting increases capital costs, yield, productivity, and personnel safety]]
Logging is by some measures a dangerous occupation. Loggers work with heavy, moving weights and the use of tools such as chainsaws and heavy equipment on uneven and sometimes unstable terrain. Loggers also deal with severe environmental conditions such as inclement weather and severe heat or cold. An injured logger is often far from professional emergency treatment. The risks experienced in logging operations can be somewhat reduced, where conditions permit, by the use of mechanical tree [[harvester (forestry)|harvesters]] and [[forwarder]]s.
== Logging and the environment ==
[[Image:Skid5281.jpg|thumb|left| [[Skidder]] in Oregon]]
The many impacts of logging on the environment can be divided into two broad categories, the timber harvest itself, that is, the removal of trees from the forest, and secondly the impact caused by logging operations such as felling or dragging trees and operation of machinery in the forest.
===Impact of harvest of trees===
Removal of trees alters [[Biodiversity|species composition]], the structure of the forest, and can cause [[nutrient]] depletion. This may provide opportunities for some species while creating a loss of opportunity for others. Trees providing midday shade to streams may alter stream temperature either by preventing the sun from shining on the water by day, or by preventing the water from radiating the heat back at night.
===Impact of logging operations===
Modern ground based logging operations require the use of heavy machinery in the forest. In some areas roads must be built which often causes [[habitat fragmentation]] and increased [[edge effect]]. The use of heavy machinery in a forest can cause [[soil compaction]]. Harvesting on steep slopes can lead to [[soil erosion]], [[landslides]], and water [[turbidity]]. Logging on saturated soils can cause ruts and change drainage patterns. Harvest activity near [[wetland]]s or [[vernal pool]]s can degrade the habitat. Forest machines use oils which, if not handled carefully, can cause pollution. Roadbuilding for access to timber in frontier forests often opens up areas previously not accessible, which facilitates further development such as farming.
==Mitigation ==
-These problems can be mitigated by using [[low-impact logging]] and [[Best practice|best management practices]], which set standards for reducing erosion from [[logging roads|roads]]. Damage to streams and lakes can be reduced by not harvesting [[riparian strips]]. Ecologically important lands are sometimes set aside as reserves. Technological advances in logging equipment are reducing ruts and soil disturbance. [[Harvester (forestry)|Processors]] and [[Forwarder]]s with [[Caterpillar track]]s or other designs to lower ground pressure help to reduce machine impact <ref>[http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/fctn011.pdf/$FILE/fctn011.pdf Forestry Commission Technical Note 11]</ref>. + * [http://www.cnr.vt.edu/harvestingsystems/index.htm Harvesting Systems]
==Benefits==
Logging can also have positive effects on the environment by removing damaged or diseased trees or both, and opening up the canopy to promote growth of smaller, healthier trees. Branches, [[snag]]s, and other non-marketable parts of the tree provide shelter for [[wildlife]]. Underbrush that would not otherwise grow due to lack of sunlight thrives, and is an important food source for browsing mammals. Select cutting can improve the forest and bring to market trees that would otherwise decompose.
- In the 19th and early 20th century, logged over areas were sometimes sold or donated to the state, or forfeited for back taxes. Following the maturation of new growth, usually of different tree species, this area became the basis of certain outstanding recreation areas, including the [[White Mountain National Forest]]. Another benefit that logging has, is it provides jobs. There are over 320,000 jobs that have to do with the logging industry in Canada.
-
==See also==
*[[Cable logging]]
*[[Chain Saw]]
*[[Illegal logging]]
*[[Log bucking]]
*[[Log Scaler]]
*[[Salvage logging]]
*[[Sawmill]]
*[[Shovel logging]]
*[[Skyline logging]]
*[[Underwater logging]]
*[[The Lorax]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://www.cnr.vt.edu/harvestingsystems/index.htm Harvesting Systems]
[[Category:Forestry]]
'''Logging''' is the process in which [[tree]]s are cut down usually as part of a timber harvest. Timber is harvested to supply raw material for the [[Wood processing|wood products industry]] including logs for [[sawmills]] and [[wood pulp|pulp wood]] for the [[pulp and paper industry]]. Logging can also remove wood for [[forest management]] goals. Logging is controversial due to its perceived [[environmental]] and [[aesthetic]] impacts. Well planned and well managed logging operations often have very low impact on the environment.
== Use of the term logging in Forestry ==
In [[forestry]] the term logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, often a mill. In common usage however the term may be used generally to mean a range of forestry or silviculture activities. For example the practice of the removal of a small number of commercially valuable trees from the forest has been called [[selection cut#High-Grading|selective logging]] sometimes confused with [[selection cut]]. <ref>[http://www.na.fs.fed.us/stewardship/newsltr/newsletter/04fall_stewardship.pdf]Just say no to High Grading </ref>[[Illegal logging]] refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft. An example of illegal logging is cedar theft, which is most common in the American Pacific Northwest. Timber theft in all forms is quite rare in the United States. In common usage what is sometimes called clearcut logging is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvest or silviculture method and is simply called [[clearcutting]] or block cutting. In the forest products industry logging companies may be referred as logging contractors.
Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging. Submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded to create artificial [[dam]]s and [[reservoir]]s, and trees have started to be felled there too (see [[underwater logging]]).
== Logging and forestry ==
[[Image:Zrywka drewna w Masywie Śnieżnika PL.jpg|thumb|right|Horse Logging in [[Poland]]]]
The two main [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholder]]s in most logging operations are the landowner and the logging contractor. Prior to a large harvest a landowner will often hire a consulting [[forester]]. Owners of large industrial tracts may employ their own foresters. During planning for the harvest the forester will determine how best to meet the landowner's objectives, including the [[silvicultural]] system to be used, even-aged or uneven-aged management, layout of roads and landings. If a [[selection cutting|selection cut]] is planned the forester will mark the trees intended to be cut or if a [[Clear-cutting|clear cut]] which blocks are to be harvested. A well-managed forest will be harvested according to a [[forest management]] plan. This plan should include areas off-limits to cutting such as sensitive [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]], [[vernal pool]]s and [[riparian zone]]s.
A logging contractor may get paid according to the volume of wood harvested.
== Logging methods ==
The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the following three are considered industrial methods:
;Tree-length logging
:Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is [[Log bucking|bucked]] and loaded on a truck. This leaves the [[Slash (logging)|slash]] (and the nutrients it contains) in the cut area where it must be further treated if wildland fires are of concern.
;Full-tree logging
:Trees are felled and transported to the roadside with top and limbs intact. The trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing. In areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of clean electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the entire tree including branches and tops. <ref>[http://www.ceres.ca.gov/snep/pubs/web/PDF/VII_C44.PDF ceres.ca.gov]</ref> This technique removes both nutrients and soil cover from the site and so can be harmful to the long term health of the area if no further action is taken, however, depending on the species, many of the limbs are often broken off in handling so the end result may not be as different from tree-length logging as it might seem.
;[[Cut-to-length logging]]
:Trees are felled, delimbed, bucked, and sorted (pulpwood, sawlog, etc.) at the stump area, leaving limbs and tops in the forest. [[Harvester (forestry)|Harvester]]s fell the tree, [[delimbing|delimb]] and [[log bucking|buck]] it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by the [[forwarder]].
[[Image:Washington winch panorama.jpg|thumb|350px|left|The [[Washington Iron Works Skidder]] in Nuniong is the only one of its kind in Australia, with engine, spars and cables still rigged for work]]. This method is usable for smaller timber on ground flat enough that fordwarders can operate, but does not work well on steep slopes.
== Operations ==
[[Image:Log driving in Vancouver.jpg|thumb|[[Timber rafting]] to [[Vancouver]], B.C.]]
A [[timber]] harvest can consist of the following operations, although not necessarily in the following order.
;Pre-logging
:''Planning'' - Identifying optimal timing, access, and layout of harvest.
:''Permitting'' - Regulatory review can include public notification, environmental assessment, taxes, and fees.
:''Sale'' - Many [[timberland]] owners employ their own [[loggers]], while others hire or sell the right to log to a logging company.
:''Accessing'' - [[Logging roads]], logging camps, and weighing stations are built or repaired as needed.
:''Marking'' - The area or individual trees to be harvested are clearly identified.
:''Measuring'' - Assessing the volume of timber that will be produced by the harvest.
:''Marketing'' - Arranging supply contracts with timber customers, this may be undertaken through competitive sale methods or as part of a negotiation with preferred customers.
;Logging
:''Felling'' - The standing tree is cut down or felled by [[chainsaw]], [[harvester (forestry)|harvester]], or [[feller buncher]].
:''Processing'' - The tree is turned into logs by removing the limbs ([[delimbing]]) and cutting it into logs of optimal length ([[log bucking|bucking]]).
[[Image:Helicopter logging.jpg|thumb|A helicopter moving cedar wood from the inside of a forest to a road.]]
:''Stump to landing'' - The felled tree or logs are moved from the stump to the landing. Ground vehicles can [[skidder|pull]], [[forwarder|carry]], or [[shovel logging|shovel]] the logs. [[Cable Logging|Cable]] systems can pull logs to the landing. Logs can also be flown to the landing by [[helicopter]].
:'' Landing to mill '' - The logs are commonly transported to the [[Sawmill|mill]] or [[Seaport|port]] by truck, but in the past, this has been done by [[train]], by [[Log driving|driving the logs downstream]], or by pulling them as a floating [[Timber rafting|log raft]].
;Post-logging
:'' Burning'' - [[Prescribed burn|Burning]] logging debris and other woody material on the site can reduce future [[forest fire|fire]] risk and release nutrients.
:'' [[Herbicide]]'' - Eliminating competing seedlings and brush to speed growth of the planted seedlings
:'' Ground preparation '' - [[Cultivation]] of the soil to create suitable planting positions. This operation may include some element of land drainage in wet areas if soil saturation affects seedling survival / growth potential.
:'' Replanting'' - Dropping seeds or manual [[Treeplanting|planting]] of [[seedlings]]
:'' Road deconstruction'' - Subsequent erosion and landsliding from old roads can be reduced by installing waterbars, pulling fill from stream crossings, and putting excavated materials back to reform the original topography.
==Logging and safety==
[[Image:Log cutter02.jpg|thumb|Computerized heavy machinery log cutting increases capital costs, yield, productivity, and personnel safety]]
Logging is by some measures a dangerous occupation. Loggers work with heavy, moving weights and the use of tools such as chainsaws and heavy equipment on uneven and sometimes unstable terrain. Loggers also deal with severe environmental conditions such as inclement weather and severe heat or cold. An injured logger is often far from professional emergency treatment. The risks experienced in logging operations can be somewhat reduced, where conditions permit, by the use of mechanical tree [[harvester (forestry)|harvesters]] and [[forwarder]]s.
== Logging and the environment ==
[[Image:Skid5281.jpg|thumb|left| [[Skidder]] in Oregon]]
The many impacts of logging on the environment can be divided into two broad categories, the timber harvest itself, that is, the removal of trees from the forest, and secondly the impact caused by logging operations such as felling or dragging trees and operation of machinery in the forest.
===Impact of harvest of trees===
Removal of trees alters [[Biodiversity|species composition]], the structure of the forest, and can cause [[nutrient]] depletion. This may provide opportunities for some species while creating a loss of opportunity for others. Trees providing midday shade to streams may alter stream temperature either by preventing the sun from shining on the water by day, or by preventing the water from radiating the heat back at night.
===Impact of logging operations===
Modern ground based logging operations require the use of heavy machinery in the forest. In some areas roads must be built which often causes [[habitat fragmentation]] and increased [[edge effect]]. The use of heavy machinery in a forest can cause [[soil compaction]]. Harvesting on steep slopes can lead to [[soil erosion]], [[landslides]], and water [[turbidity]]. Logging on saturated soils can cause ruts and change drainage patterns. Harvest activity near [[wetland]]s or [[vernal pool]]s can degrade the habitat. Forest machines use oils which, if not handled carefully, can cause pollution. Roadbuilding for access to timber in frontier forests often opens up areas previously not accessible, which facilitates further development such as farming.
==Mitigation ==
-These problems can be mitigated by using [[low-impact logging]] and [[Best practice|best management practices]], which set standards for reducing erosion from [[logging roads|roads]]. Damage to streams and lakes can be reduced by not harvesting [[riparian strips]]. Ecologically important lands are sometimes set aside as reserves. Technological advances in logging equipment are reducing ruts and soil disturbance. [[Harvester (forestry)|Processors]] and [[Forwarder]]s with [[Caterpillar track]]s or other designs to lower ground pressure help to reduce machine impact <ref>[http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/fctn011.pdf/$FILE/fctn011.pdf Forestry Commission Technical Note 11]</ref>. + * [http://www.cnr.vt.edu/harvestingsystems/index.htm Harvesting Systems]
==Benefits==
Logging can also have positive effects on the environment by removing damaged or diseased trees or both, and opening up the canopy to promote growth of smaller, healthier trees. Branches, [[snag]]s, and other non-marketable parts of the tree provide shelter for [[wildlife]]. Underbrush that would not otherwise grow due to lack of sunlight thrives, and is an important food source for browsing mammals. Select cutting can improve the forest and bring to market trees that would otherwise decompose.
- In the 19th and early 20th century, logged over areas were sometimes sold or donated to the state, or forfeited for back taxes. Following the maturation of new growth, usually of different tree species, this area became the basis of certain outstanding recreation areas, including the [[White Mountain National Forest]]. Another benefit that logging has, is it provides jobs. There are over 320,000 jobs that have to do with the logging industry in Canada.
-
==See also==
*[[Cable logging]]
*[[Chain Saw]]
*[[Illegal logging]]
*[[Log bucking]]
*[[Log Scaler]]
*[[Salvage logging]]
*[[Sawmill]]
*[[Shovel logging]]
*[[Skyline logging]]
*[[Underwater logging]]
*[[The Lorax]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://www.cnr.vt.edu/harvestingsystems/index.htm Harvesting Systems]
[[Category:Forestry]]
