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{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Xanthosoma''
| image = Elephantear_reduced.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Xanthosoma roseum''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Alismatales]]
| familia = [[Araceae]]
| genus = '''''Xanthosoma'''''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''About 50; see text''
}}
'''''Xanthosoma''''' is a genus of about 50 species of tropical and sub-tropical arums in the [[flowering plant]] family, [[Araceae]], all native to tropical [[Americas|America]]. Several species are grown for their [[starch]]y [[corm]]s, an important [[root vegetable|food staple]] of tropical regions, known variously as '''malanga''', '''new cocoyam''', '''tannia''', '''tannier''', '''yautía''', '''macabo''', '''taioba ''', '''dasheen''' and '''‘ape'''. Many other species (including especially ''X. roseum'') are utilized as [[ornamental plant]]s, and in popular horticultural literature are known as ‘ape or '''elephant ear''' (from the purported resemblance of the leaf to an [[elephant]]'s [[ear]]), although the latter name is sometimes also applied to members with similar appearance and uses in the closely related genera of ''[[Caladium]]'', ''[[Colocasia]]'' (i.e., [[taro]]), and ''[[Alocasia]]''.
The [[leaf|leaves]] of most ''Xanthosoma'' species are 40-200 cm long, saggitate (arrowhead-shaped) or subdivided into 3 or as many as 18 segments. Unlike the leaves of ''Colocasia'', those of ''Xanthosoma'' are usually not ''peltate''—the upper v-notch extends in to the point of attachment of the leaf ''petiole'' to the blade.
== Pollination biology ==
Inflorescences of ''Xanthosoma'' are composed by a spadix with pistillate flowers
at the base, a belt of sterile flowers offered as a reward for
pollinators in the middle, and staminate flowers on the upper part.
Prior to opening, the inflorescence is enclosed within a leaf-like
spathe. When the inflorescence is ready to open, the upper part of
the spathe opens and exposes the staminate area of the spadix; the
basal area of the spathe remains closed, forming a spacious chamber
(i.e., the spathe tube) that encloses the pistillate and sterile flowers
(García-Robledo et al. 2004; 2005a; 2005b).
[[Image:Arum flower.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Inflorescence of ''X. roseum'']]
[[Image:Inflo_detail.jpg|thumb|left|158px|Inflorescence of ''X. daguense'']]
The inflorescences last for two nights and are protogynous (but ''see'' Valerio 1988),
changing from the pistillate phase that attracts pollinators on the
night it opens, to a staminate phase on the second night, when pollen
is shed (Garcıa-Robledo et al. 2004; 2005a; 2005b). When inflorescences open, produce heat and release a sweet scent attracting its pollinators, Dynastine beetles (''Cyclocephala'' spp.). Dinastines arrive covered with pollen from another inflorescence, and remain in the spathe
tube for 24 h, pollinating the pistillate flowers as they feed on the
sterile area of the spadix. On the second night, they come out of
the tube and walk over the staminate flowers, getting covered with
pollen and then flying to the nearest recently opened inflorescence (García-Robledo et al. 2004; 2005a; 2005b).
[[Image:Pollination.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Beetle pollination in ''X. daguense'' A. First night B. Second night C. after third night after inflorescence anthesis]]
Fruit maturation takes several months. Fruits start to grow
within the shelter of the spathe tube. When the infructescence
is mature, in some species it arches back and downwards. In other species it stays erect. Then, the tissue of the spathe tube rolled
outwards, exhibiting the bright orange fruits and the
velvety pink inner spathe surface (García-Robledo et al. 2004; 2005a; 2005b).
[[Image:Infruc Xanthosoma copy.jpg|thumb|left|350px|A. Infructescence of ''X. poeppigii'', Peruvian Amazonas B. Infructescence of ''X. daguense'' . Western Cordillera of Los Andes, Colombia]]
== Crop uses ==
[[Image:Bakweri cocoyam farmer from Cameroon.jpg|thumb|240px|right|A Cameroonian man works his cocoyam field.]]
Domestication of ''Xanthosoma'' species (especially ''X. saggitifolium'' but also ''X. atrovirens'', ''X. violaceum'', ''X. maffaffa'', and others) is thought to have originated in northern lowland [[South America]] then spread to the [[Antilles]] and [[Mesoamerica]]. Today ''Xanthosoma'' is still grown in all those regions but is especially popular in [[Cuba]] and [[Puerto Rico]], where it is used in [[Alcapurria]]s. It is grown in [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Guyana]] and [[Jamaica]] to make the popular [[callaloo]] dish.It is also grown in [[West Africa]], now a major producer, where it can be used as a replacement for [[yam (vegetable)|yams]] in a popular regional dish called ''[[fufu]]''. ''Xanthosoma'' is also grown as a crop in the [[Philippines]].
{| class="wikitable" align=left style="clear:left"
! colspan=2|Top Yautía (Cocoyam) Producers - 2005<br>(million metric ton)
|-
| {{CUB}} || align="right" | 0.25
|-
| {{DOM}} || align="right" | 0.07
|-
| {{ESA}}|| align="right" | 0.05
|-
| {{VEN}} || align="right" | 0.05
|-
| {{PER}} || align="right" | 0.04
|-
|'''World Total''' || align="right" | '''0.47'''
|-
|colspan=2|''Source: <br>[[UN Food & Agriculture Organisation]] (FAO)''[http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops.Primary&Domain=Production&servlet=1&hasbulk=0&version=ext&language=EN]
|}
Traditionally ''Xanthosoma'' has been a subsistence crop with excess sold at local markets, but in the [[United States]], large numbers of [[Latin American]] immigrants have created a market for commercial production. In general, production has yet to meet demand in some areas. In Polynesia, ''Xanthosoma'' (‘ape) was considered a [[famine food]], utilized only in the event of failure of the much preferred taro (''kalo'') crop.
The typical ''Xanthosoma'' plant has a growing cycle of 9 to 11 months, during which time it produces a large stem called a [[corm]], this surrounded by smaller edible ''cormels'' about the size of [[potato]]es. These cormels (like the corm) are rich in starch. Their taste has been described as earthy and nutty and they are a common ingredient in soups and stews. They may also be eaten [[grilling|grilled]], [[frying|fried]], or [[purée]]d. The young, unfurled leaves of some varieties can be eaten as boiled [[leafy vegetable]]s or used in [[soup]]s and [[stew]]s, such as the Caribbean [[callaloo]].
''Xanthosoma'' starch is highly [[hypoallergenic]] due to the small size of the starch grains.
[[Image:Cocoyams for sale.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Cocoyam corms for sale in a Cameroonian market]]
== References ==
'''García -Robledo, C., '''G. Kattan, C. Murcia, P. Quintero.2005a. Equal and opposite effects of floral offer and spatial distribution on fruit production and pre-dispersal seed predation in ''Xanthosoma daguense'' (Araceae). Biotropica. 37: 373-380
'''García–Robledo, C., '''P. Quintero-Marín. F. Mora-Kepfer. 2005b. Geographic Variation and Succession of Arthropod Communities in Inflorescences and Infructescences of ''Xanthosoma'' (Araceae). Biotropica. 37: 650-656
'''García-Robledo, C. , '''G. Kattan, C. Murcia and P. Quintero. 2004. Beetle pollination and fruit predation in ''Xanthosoma daguense'' (Araceae). Journal of Tropical Ecology. 20: 459 – 469
'''Valerio, C. E.''' 1988. Notes on the phenology and pollination of
''Xanthosoma wendlandii'' (Araceae) in Costa Rica. Revista de Biologıa
Tropical 36:55–61.
== External links ==
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Xanthosoma_nex.html ''Xanthosoma'' spp. at Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plants Products]
* [http://www.kallus.com/aroids/ediblescientific.htm Distribution and names of edible aroids]
[[Category:Araceae]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Staple foods]]
[[Category:Plants and pollinators]]
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Xanthosoma''
| image = Elephantear_reduced.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Xanthosoma roseum''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Alismatales]]
| familia = [[Araceae]]
| genus = '''''Xanthosoma'''''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''About 50; see text''
}}
'''''Xanthosoma''''' is a genus of about 50 species of tropical and sub-tropical arums in the [[flowering plant]] family, [[Araceae]], all native to tropical [[Americas|America]]. Several species are grown for their [[starch]]y [[corm]]s, an important [[root vegetable|food staple]] of tropical regions, known variously as '''malanga''', '''new cocoyam''', '''tannia''', '''tannier''', '''yautía''', '''macabo''', '''taioba ''', '''dasheen''' and '''‘ape'''. Many other species (including especially ''X. roseum'') are utilized as [[ornamental plant]]s, and in popular horticultural literature are known as ‘ape or '''elephant ear''' (from the purported resemblance of the leaf to an [[elephant]]'s [[ear]]), although the latter name is sometimes also applied to members with similar appearance and uses in the closely related genera of ''[[Caladium]]'', ''[[Colocasia]]'' (i.e., [[taro]]), and ''[[Alocasia]]''.
The [[leaf|leaves]] of most ''Xanthosoma'' species are 40-200 cm long, saggitate (arrowhead-shaped) or subdivided into 3 or as many as 18 segments. Unlike the leaves of ''Colocasia'', those of ''Xanthosoma'' are usually not ''peltate''—the upper v-notch extends in to the point of attachment of the leaf ''petiole'' to the blade.
== Pollination biology ==
Inflorescences of ''Xanthosoma'' are composed by a spadix with pistillate flowers
at the base, a belt of sterile flowers offered as a reward for
pollinators in the middle, and staminate flowers on the upper part.
Prior to opening, the inflorescence is enclosed within a leaf-like
spathe. When the inflorescence is ready to open, the upper part of
the spathe opens and exposes the staminate area of the spadix; the
basal area of the spathe remains closed, forming a spacious chamber
(i.e., the spathe tube) that encloses the pistillate and sterile flowers
(García-Robledo et al. 2004; 2005a; 2005b).
[[Image:Arum flower.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Inflorescence of ''X. roseum'']]
[[Image:Inflo_detail.jpg|thumb|left|158px|Inflorescence of ''X. daguense'']]
The inflorescences last for two nights and are protogynous (but ''see'' Valerio 1988),
changing from the pistillate phase that attracts pollinators on the
night it opens, to a staminate phase on the second night, when pollen
is shed (Garcıa-Robledo et al. 2004; 2005a; 2005b). When inflorescences open, produce heat and release a sweet scent attracting its pollinators, Dynastine beetles (''Cyclocephala'' spp.). Dinastines arrive covered with pollen from another inflorescence, and remain in the spathe
tube for 24 h, pollinating the pistillate flowers as they feed on the
sterile area of the spadix. On the second night, they come out of
the tube and walk over the staminate flowers, getting covered with
pollen and then flying to the nearest recently opened inflorescence (García-Robledo et al. 2004; 2005a; 2005b).
[[Image:Pollination.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Beetle pollination in ''X. daguense'' A. First night B. Second night C. after third night after inflorescence anthesis]]
Fruit maturation takes several months. Fruits start to grow
within the shelter of the spathe tube. When the infructescence
is mature, in some species it arches back and downwards. In other species it stays erect. Then, the tissue of the spathe tube rolled
outwards, exhibiting the bright orange fruits and the
velvety pink inner spathe surface (García-Robledo et al. 2004; 2005a; 2005b).
[[Image:Infruc Xanthosoma copy.jpg|thumb|left|350px|A. Infructescence of ''X. poeppigii'', Peruvian Amazonas B. Infructescence of ''X. daguense'' . Western Cordillera of Los Andes, Colombia]]
== Crop uses ==
[[Image:Bakweri cocoyam farmer from Cameroon.jpg|thumb|240px|right|A Cameroonian man works his cocoyam field.]]
Domestication of ''Xanthosoma'' species (especially ''X. saggitifolium'' but also ''X. atrovirens'', ''X. violaceum'', ''X. maffaffa'', and others) is thought to have originated in northern lowland [[South America]] then spread to the [[Antilles]] and [[Mesoamerica]]. Today ''Xanthosoma'' is still grown in all those regions but is especially popular in [[Cuba]] and [[Puerto Rico]], where it is used in [[Alcapurria]]s. It is grown in [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Guyana]] and [[Jamaica]] to make the popular [[callaloo]] dish.It is also grown in [[West Africa]], now a major producer, where it can be used as a replacement for [[yam (vegetable)|yams]] in a popular regional dish called ''[[fufu]]''. ''Xanthosoma'' is also grown as a crop in the [[Philippines]].
{| class="wikitable" align=left style="clear:left"
! colspan=2|Top Yautía (Cocoyam) Producers - 2005<br>(million metric ton)
|-
| {{CUB}} || align="right" | 0.25
|-
| {{DOM}} || align="right" | 0.07
|-
| {{ESA}}|| align="right" | 0.05
|-
| {{VEN}} || align="right" | 0.05
|-
| {{PER}} || align="right" | 0.04
|-
|'''World Total''' || align="right" | '''0.47'''
|-
|colspan=2|''Source: <br>[[UN Food & Agriculture Organisation]] (FAO)''[http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops.Primary&Domain=Production&servlet=1&hasbulk=0&version=ext&language=EN]
|}
Traditionally ''Xanthosoma'' has been a subsistence crop with excess sold at local markets, but in the [[United States]], large numbers of [[Latin American]] immigrants have created a market for commercial production. In general, production has yet to meet demand in some areas. In Polynesia, ''Xanthosoma'' (‘ape) was considered a [[famine food]], utilized only in the event of failure of the much preferred taro (''kalo'') crop.
The typical ''Xanthosoma'' plant has a growing cycle of 9 to 11 months, during which time it produces a large stem called a [[corm]], this surrounded by smaller edible ''cormels'' about the size of [[potato]]es. These cormels (like the corm) are rich in starch. Their taste has been described as earthy and nutty and they are a common ingredient in soups and stews. They may also be eaten [[grilling|grilled]], [[frying|fried]], or [[purée]]d. The young, unfurled leaves of some varieties can be eaten as boiled [[leafy vegetable]]s or used in [[soup]]s and [[stew]]s, such as the Caribbean [[callaloo]].
''Xanthosoma'' starch is highly [[hypoallergenic]] due to the small size of the starch grains.
[[Image:Cocoyams for sale.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Cocoyam corms for sale in a Cameroonian market]]
== References ==
'''García -Robledo, C., '''G. Kattan, C. Murcia, P. Quintero.2005a. Equal and opposite effects of floral offer and spatial distribution on fruit production and pre-dispersal seed predation in ''Xanthosoma daguense'' (Araceae). Biotropica. 37: 373-380
'''García–Robledo, C., '''P. Quintero-Marín. F. Mora-Kepfer. 2005b. Geographic Variation and Succession of Arthropod Communities in Inflorescences and Infructescences of ''Xanthosoma'' (Araceae). Biotropica. 37: 650-656
'''García-Robledo, C. , '''G. Kattan, C. Murcia and P. Quintero. 2004. Beetle pollination and fruit predation in ''Xanthosoma daguense'' (Araceae). Journal of Tropical Ecology. 20: 459 – 469
'''Valerio, C. E.''' 1988. Notes on the phenology and pollination of
''Xanthosoma wendlandii'' (Araceae) in Costa Rica. Revista de Biologıa
Tropical 36:55–61.
== External links ==
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Xanthosoma_nex.html ''Xanthosoma'' spp. at Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plants Products]
* [http://www.kallus.com/aroids/ediblescientific.htm Distribution and names of edible aroids]
[[Category:Araceae]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Staple foods]]
[[Category:Plants and pollinators]]
