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Strawberry. The species of Fragaria, grown for the fruit. (For the morphology of the strawberry fruit, see Vol. I, page 40.)

Strawberry. The species of Fragaria, grown for the fruit.

The strawberry is an herbaceous perennial. It naturally propagates itself by means of runners that form chiefly after the blooming season. Seedage is practised only with the Alpines, and in raising new varieties. Division of the crown is useful for propagating varieties that are practically runnerless, as the Bush Alpine and Pan-American. The runner plants, either transplanted or allowed to remain where they form, will bear the following year. Usually the plants will continue to bear for five or six years, but the first and second crops are generally the best. Good results are sometimes secured from plants over ten years old, especially when they are grown under hill training and intensive culture, but this is a special practice. It is therefore the custom to plow up strawberry beds after they have borne from one to three crops. The better the land and the more intensive the cultivation, the shorter the rotation. In market-gardening areas and in some of the very best strawberry regions, the plants are allowed to fruit but once. The plants therefore occupy the land only one year and the crop works into schemes of short-rotation cropping. When the bed is fruited more than one year it should be renewed immediately after the crop is harvested. In the case of matted or spaced rows, this consists of reducing the number of old plants, using the plow, disc-harrow, cultivator, or hoe, and in stirring the soil to provide favorable conditions for the rooting of new runners. It is customary, also, to mow the leaves and burn them. In the case of hill or hedge-row plants, renewal consists of mowing and in drawing about an inch of fresh soil around the plants, so that new roots will form above the old ones. Throughout the North, and as far south as Kentucky and Missouri, beds are fruited but one year, occasionally two, rarely longer. In Florida and the coastal plain of the Gulf states, the plants occupy the ground but six to eight months. In the lower Mississippi Valley and on the Pacific coast, beds are fruited three to six years. The strawberry delights in a rich rather moist soil and a cool season. It can be grown in the cool part of the year in the South and thereby becomes one of the most cosmopolitan of fruits. The young plants may be separated from the parent and put into new plantations in August; but under average conditions in the North it is usually better to wait until early the following spring, since the weather is likely to be too hot and dry in the late summer or fall. South of Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas, and on the Pacific coast, most of the planting is done in the fall or winter months. Plants that have not borne are best for setting. They are plants of the season: that is, plants which start in the spring of 1916 are fit for planting in the late summer or fall of 1916 or in the spring of 1917. These plants have many long, fresh, light-colored roots. Fig. 3714 shows such a plant, with the roots trimmed for planting. Fig. 3715 shows a plant that has borne. This plant bore fruit, say, in 1915, and has thrown up a new crown in 1916. The old dead crown is seen at the right. The young growth is lateral to this old crown. The roots are relatively few and are hard and black. These plants sometimes make good plantations under extra good care, but generally they should be avoided.  

The strawberry is an herbaceous perennial. It naturally propagates itself by means of runners that form chiefly after the blooming season. Seedage is practised only with the Alpines, and in raising new varieties. Division of the crown is useful for propagating varieties that are practically runnerless, as the Bush Alpine and Pan-American. The runner plants, either transplanted or allowed to remain where they form, will bear the following year. Usually the plants will continue to bear for five or six years, but the first and second crops are generally the best. Good results are sometimes secured from plants over ten years old, especially when they are grown under hill training and intensive culture, but this is a special practice. It is therefore the custom to plow up strawberry beds after they have borne from one to three crops. The better the land and the more intensive the cultivation, the shorter the rotation. In market-gardening areas and in some of the very best strawberry regions, the plants are allowed to fruit but once. The plants therefore occupy the land only one year and the crop works into schemes of short-rotation cropping. When the bed is fruited more than one year it should be renewed immediately after the crop is harvested. In the case of matted or spaced rows, this consists of reducing the number of old plants, using the plow, disc-harrow, cultivator, or hoe, and in stirring the soil to provide favorable conditions for the rooting of new runners. It is customary, also, to mow the leaves and burn them. In the case of hill or hedge-row plants, renewal consists of mowing and in drawing about an inch of fresh soil around the plants, so that new roots will form above the old ones. Throughout the North, and as far south as Kentucky and Missouri, beds are fruited but one year, occasionally two, rarely longer. In Florida and the coastal plain of the Gulf states, the plants occupy the ground but six to eight months. In the lower Mississippi Valley and on the Pacific coast, beds are fruited three to six years. The strawberry delights in a rich rather moist soil and a cool season. It can be grown in the cool part of the year in the South and thereby becomes one of the most cosmopolitan of fruits. The young plants may be separated from the parent and put into new plantations in August; but under average conditions in the North it is usually better to wait until early the following spring, since the weather is likely to be too hot and dry in the late summer or fall. South of Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas, and on the Pacific coast, most of the planting is done in the fall or winter months. Plants that have not borne are best for setting. They are plants of the season: that is, plants which start in the spring of 1916 are fit for planting in the late summer or fall of 1916 or in the spring of 1917. These plants have many long, fresh, light-colored roots. Fig. 3714 shows such a plant, with the roots trimmed for planting. Fig. 3715 shows a plant that has borne. This plant bore fruit, say, in 1915, and has thrown up a new crown in 1916. The old dead crown is seen at the right. The young growth is lateral to this old crown. The roots are relatively few and are hard and black. These plants sometimes make good plantations under extra good care, but generally they should be avoided.  

In the North, strawberries are usually mulched in the fall, in order to protect them from alternate freezing and thawing in the winter and early spring and to prevent the soil from heaving. In some cases the mulch is allowed to remain on the plants rather late in the spring, in order to retard the season of bloom. Sometimes the crop may be retarded a week or ten days by this means. It should not be removed until settled spring weather has come, nor left on so long that the plants bleach. The mulch is more necessary in regions of light and precarious snowfall than in those in which the snow blanket is deep and lies all winter. In regions of deep and continuous snowfall, a heavy mulch is likely to prove injurious. Experience has shown that the best mulch is some strawy material. Along the seacoast, salt hay from the tide marshes is much used. In interior places clean straw, in which there is no grain to sprout and to make weeds, is very largely employed. (Fig. 3717.) In the South, pine needles are used. Sometimes loose strawy manure is used, and the mulch adds fertilizer to the soil as well as affords protection. Corn fodder, leaves, brakes, seaweed, evergreen boughs, and other wild herbage are used occasionally. Cowpeas and sorghum are grown for mulching material when straw is scarce. The practice of growing oats, barley, or some other small grain between the rows of strawberries, to fall down and mulch the berries, is not generally advisable. Under ordinary conditions the mulch is 3 or 4 inches deep over the plants after it is fairly well packed down. It is not always possible, however, to mulch as heavily as this, since the material is likely to be expensive when one has a large area. The mulch is usually applied late in the fall after the ground has frozen, and, if the material is abundant, both the plants and the intervening spaces are covered. In the spring the mulch is raked from the plants as soon as they begin to start. Some persons allow it to lie between the rows as a cover to retain moisture and to keep the berries clean. The most expert growers, however, prefer to take the mulch from the field and to till the plantation once or twice before the plants are in bloom; the material is then returned and spread on the loose soil between the rows and beneath the vines. In the northern prairie states, heavy mulching is essential. For western Minnesota and Dakota a covering of at least 6 inches of straw is advised. This mulch is easily provided, since straw is so abundant in that country that it is often burned as the readiest means of getting rid of it. When not mulched in that region, the plants are likely to be killed outright or to start with a very weak growth. Mulching for winter protection is not necessary south of Virginia and Missouri, but mulching to keep the fruit clean is as profitable in the South as in the North. The fruiting mulch is applied after the plants begin to bloom. Pine "straw" is used most. A large handful is dropped upon each plant; the leaves soon push through. Rarely is it desirable to cover the entire area between the rows. On the Pacific coast, strawberries are not mulched, as it is not necessary for winter protection, and it would interfere with irrigation.  

In the North, strawberries are usually mulched in the fall, in order to protect them from alternate freezing and thawing in the winter and early spring and to prevent the soil from heaving. In some cases the mulch is allowed to remain on the plants rather late in the spring, in order to retard the season of bloom. Sometimes the crop may be retarded a week or ten days by this means. It should not be removed until settled spring weather has come, nor left on so long that the plants bleach. The mulch is more necessary in regions of light and precarious snowfall than in those in which the snow blanket is deep and lies all winter. In regions of deep and continuous snowfall, a heavy mulch is likely to prove injurious. Experience has shown that the best mulch is some strawy material. Along the seacoast, salt hay from the tide marshes is much used. In interior places clean straw, in which there is no grain to sprout and to make weeds, is very largely employed. (Fig. 3717.) In the South, pine needles are used. Sometimes loose strawy manure is used, and the mulch adds fertilizer to the soil as well as affords protection. Corn fodder, leaves, brakes, seaweed, evergreen boughs, and other wild herbage are used occasionally. Cowpeas and sorghum are grown for mulching material when straw is scarce. The practice of growing oats, barley, or some other small grain between the rows of strawberries, to fall down and mulch the berries, is not generally advisable. Under ordinary conditions the mulch is 3 or 4 inches deep over the plants after it is fairly well packed down. It is not always possible, however, to mulch as heavily as this, since the material is likely to be expensive when one has a large area. The mulch is usually applied late in the fall after the ground has frozen, and, if the material is abundant, both the plants and the intervening spaces are covered. In the spring the mulch is raked from the plants as soon as they begin to start. Some persons allow it to lie between the rows as a cover to retain moisture and to keep the berries clean. The most expert growers, however, prefer to take the mulch from the field and to till the plantation once or twice before the plants are in bloom; the material is then returned and spread on the loose soil between the rows and beneath the vines. In the northern prairie states, heavy mulching is essential. For western Minnesota and Dakota a covering of at least 6 inches of straw is advised. This mulch is easily provided, since straw is so abundant in that country that it is often burned as the readiest means of getting rid of it. When not mulched in that region, the plants are likely to be killed outright or to start with a very weak growth. Mulching for winter protection is not necessary south of Virginia and Missouri, but mulching to keep the fruit clean is as profitable in the South as in the North. The fruiting mulch is applied after the plants begin to bloom. Pine "straw" is used most. A large handful is dropped upon each plant; the leaves soon push through. Rarely is it desirable to cover the entire area between the rows. On the Pacific coast, strawberries are not mulched, as it is not necessary for winter protection, and it would interfere with irrigation.  

Strawberry flowers may be either perfect or imperfect, and the nature of the flower is characteristic of the variety. In some kinds, the flower is perfect or hermaphrodite (having both stamens and pistils) and is consequently self-fertile. These are commonly called staminate varieties. In others it is pistillate, producing little or no pollen, and requiring a pollen-bearing variety to pollinate it. (Fig. 3718.) There are no modern varieties bearing only staminate or sterile flowers, although such forms were common about 1840. The perfect-flowered varieties differ greatly in the amount of pollen they produce. Some, as the Crescent and Glen Mary, bear so few stamens that they are practically pistillate or sterile. Any variety will fertilize any other variety if it bears sufficient pollen and if the two kinds bloom at the same time. The variety used as a pollinizer does not affect the shape, color, and quality of the fruit of the pistillate sort, as was once thought. It is preferable to plant an early-blooming pollinizer on one side of the rows of the pistillate sort, and a late-blooming pollinizer on the other side. When planting pistillate varieties, every third row should be a pollen-bearing kind. Pistillate varieties as a class are somewhat more productive and hardy than staminate varieties as a class; but this fact has little weight, since some staminate sorts are fully as prolific and hardy as the best pistillate varieties. It is an inconvenience to be obliged to mix varieties for pollination; hence pistillate varieties are steadily declining in popularity. In time, all North American varieties will be staminate, as is now the case in England. The horticultural bearing of the sexual characters of the strawberry flower was first clearly explained in this country by Nicholas Longworth, of Cincinnati (see page 1585; also his essay on the subject in his "Cultivation of the Grape," 1846, and the "Strawberry Report" of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, 1848). When many of the achenes or "seeds" of the strawberry are not fertilized or are killed by frost or other means, the berry fails to develop at that point and a "nubbin," or imperfect berry, is the result (Fig. 3719). Nubbins are usually most abundant late in the fruiting-season, when the pollen-supply is small and when the plants are relatively exhausted.

Strawberry flowers may be either perfect or imperfect, and the nature of the flower is characteristic of the variety. In some kinds, the flower is perfect or hermaphrodite (having both stamens and pistils) and is consequently self-fertile. These are commonly called staminate varieties. In others it is pistillate, producing little or no pollen, and requiring a pollen-bearing variety to pollinate it. There are no modern varieties bearing only staminate or sterile flowers, although such forms were common about 1840. The perfect-flowered varieties differ greatly in the amount of pollen they produce. Some, as the Crescent and Glen Mary, bear so few stamens that they are practically pistillate or sterile. Any variety will fertilize any other variety if it bears sufficient pollen and if the two kinds bloom at the same time. The variety used as a pollinizer does not affect the shape, color, and quality of the fruit of the pistillate sort, as was once thought. It is preferable to plant an early-blooming pollinizer on one side of the rows of the pistillate sort, and a late-blooming pollinizer on the other side. When planting pistillate varieties, every third row should be a pollen-bearing kind. Pistillate varieties as a class are somewhat more productive and hardy than staminate varieties as a class; but this fact has little weight, since some staminate sorts are fully as prolific and hardy as the best pistillate varieties. It is an inconvenience to be obliged to mix varieties for pollination; hence pistillate varieties are steadily declining in popularity. In time, all North American varieties will be staminate, as is now the case in England. The horticultural bearing of the sexual characters of the strawberry flower was first clearly explained in this country by Nicholas Longworth, of Cincinnati (see page 1585; also his essay on the subject in his "Cultivation of the Grape," 1846, and the "Strawberry Report" of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, 1848). When many of the achenes or "seeds" of the strawberry are not fertilized or are killed by frost or other means, the berry fails to develop at that point and a "nubbin," or imperfect berry, is the result. Nubbins are usually most abundant late in the fruiting-season, when the pollen-supply is small and when the plants are relatively exhausted.

Ordinarily the common varieties bear but once a year, in the spring. Under certain conditions of temperature and moisture they may become "double croppers," and give a fall crop, also. In the South, particularly in southern California, the bearing season may be extended over several months; but no varieties were consistently everbearing in the North until 1898, when Samuel Cooper, of Delevan, New York, found the Pan-American in a row of Bismarck. European everbearers, which are hybrids of the common strawberry and the Alpine, do not succeed here. The numerous descendants of the Pan-American are true everbearers; they yield a small quantity of berries throughout the season from spring-set plants. It is better, however, to cut off all blossoms until midsummer; then there will be considerable fruit from August until frost, but not so much as a good crop from a spring-bearing variety. The culture of the everbearers does not differ materially from that of other sorts, save in the cutting of the blossoms weekly, which is a heavy expense. They require rich soil and an equable supply of moisture; they fail in a dry season. The market for berries in late summer and fall is limited, and the cost of picking is heavy. The following spring, a year from the tune they were set, the everbearers produce a good crop, perhaps equaling that of single-bearing sorts. This is one point in which the North American everbearers are distinctly superior to those of Europe. The everbearers have little commercial future merely for supplying summer and fall berries, but their habit of bearing a heavy spring crop, also, may make them useful to some growers who cater to personal or near markets. They are not likely to find favor with those who grow strawberries for the wholesale market. The everbearers are valuable mainly for the home-garden.

Ordinarily the common varieties bear but once a year, in the spring. Under certain conditions of temperature and moisture they may become "double croppers," and give a fall crop, also. In the South, particularly in southern California, the bearing season may be extended over several months; but no varieties were consistently everbearing in the North until 1898, when Samuel Cooper, of Delevan, New York, found the Pan-American in a row of Bismarck. European everbearers, which are hybrids of the common strawberry and the Alpine, do not succeed here. The numerous descendants of the Pan-American are true everbearers; they yield a small quantity of berries throughout the season from spring-set plants. It is better, however, to cut off all blossoms until midsummer; then there will be considerable fruit from August until frost, but not so much as a good crop from a spring-bearing variety. The culture of the everbearers does not differ materially from that of other sorts, save in the cutting of the blossoms weekly, which is a heavy expense. They require rich soil and an equable supply of moisture; they fail in a dry season. The market for berries in late summer and fall is limited, and the cost of picking is heavy. The following spring, a year from the tune they were set, the everbearers produce a good crop, perhaps equaling that of single-bearing sorts. This is one point in which the North American everbearers are distinctly superior to those of Europe. The everbearers have little commercial future merely for supplying summer and fall berries, but their habit of bearing a heavy spring crop, also, may make them useful to some growers who cater to personal or near markets. They are not likely to find favor with those who grow strawberries for the wholesale market. The everbearers are valuable mainly for the home-garden.

New varieties of strawberries are raised from seed with the greatest ease. The generations of strawberries are short and new varieties soon find favor. The varieties change so frequently in popular estimation that it is impracticable to recommend a list of them in a work like this. The first great American berry was the Hovey, introduced in 1838. (Fig. 1861, Vol. III.) The most popular single variety has been the Wilson (Fig. 3720), introduced in 1854 and still popular in Canada and the northern Pacific states. It held almost undisputed control of the market from 1860 to 1880, when the Crescent and Sharpless secured recognition. These three are the most important North American varieties; two-thirds of the 348 varieties of known parentage have descended from them. Other old favorites, now no longer grown, are the Cumberland, Triumph, Downer Prolific, and Charles Downing. European varieties do not succeed here; notable exceptions are Jucunda, and Triomphe. Over 1,800 varieties of North American origin have been introduced but less than 150 of these have attained prominence. The oldest North American variety now cultivated is the Longworth, introduced in 1851; it is still prized in the San Francisco market. The dominant commercial varieties of today are the Dunlap, Haverland, Marshall, Klondyke, Aroma, Gandy, Glen Mary, Bubach, Brandywine, Clark, Warfield. At least fifty others are grown to a considerable extent. The accompanying pictures (Figs. 3720-3725) show types of American strawberries.

New varieties of strawberries are raised from seed with the greatest ease. The generations of strawberries are short and new varieties soon find favor. The varieties change so frequently in popular estimation that it is impracticable to recommend a list of them in a work like this. The first great American berry was the Hovey, introduced in 1838. (Fig. 1861, Vol. III.) The most popular single variety has been the Wilson (Fig. 3720), introduced in 1854 and still popular in Canada and the northern Pacific states. It held almost undisputed control of the market from 1860 to 1880, when the Crescent and Sharpless secured recognition. These three are the most important North American varieties; two-thirds of the 348 varieties of known parentage have descended from them. Other old favorites, now no longer grown, are the Cumberland, Triumph, Downer Prolific, and Charles Downing. European varieties do not succeed here; notable exceptions are Jucunda, and Triomphe. Over 1,800 varieties of North American origin have been introduced but less than 150 of these have attained prominence. The oldest North American variety now cultivated is the Longworth, introduced in 1851; it is still prized in the San Francisco market. The dominant commercial varieties of today are the Dunlap, Haverland, Marshall, Klondyke, Aroma, Gandy, Glen Mary, Bubach, Brandywine, Clark, Warfield. At least fifty others are grown to a considerable extent. The accompanying pictures (Figs. 3720-3725) show types of American strawberries.

There are several serious fungous diseases and insect pests of the strawberry. White grub is controlled by avoiding newly plowed sod land when setting the bed; weevil, by planting largely of pistillate varieties or profuse-blooming staminate sorts; leaf-roller, by spraying with arsenate of lead, and burning the leaves; root-louse, by setting clean plants in clean land. The several types of leaf-blight (Fig. 3726) may be prevented to a considerable extent by spraying with bordeaux, but it is more practicable to plant resistant varieties. The fundamental treatment of all these is to fruit the bed but once, or at most but twice, and to grow succeeding crops on other land, cleaning up the old plantation thoroughly after the last fruiting. Short, quick, and sharp rotations and clean culture do much to keep all enemies in check.

There are several serious fungous diseases and insect pests of the strawberry. White grub is controlled by avoiding newly plowed sod land when setting the bed; weevil, by planting largely of pistillate varieties or profuse-blooming staminate sorts; leaf-roller, by spraying with arsenate of lead, and burning the leaves; root-louse, by setting clean plants in clean land. The several types of leaf-blight (Fig. 3726) may be prevented to a considerable extent by spraying with bordeaux, but it is more practicable to plant resistant varieties. The fundamental treatment of all these is to fruit the bed but once, or at most but twice, and to grow succeeding crops on other land, cleaning up the old plantation thoroughly after the last fruiting. Short, quick, and sharp rotations and clean culture do much to keep all enemies in check.

Strawberry-growing in the South.

Strawberry-growing in the South.

For best results in growing strawberries a good system of rotation should be followed. In any system of rotation, a leguminous crop should be turned under once in three or four years, and a cultivated crop grown on the area the season before the strawberry plants are set. The following system of rotation is a good one for the South:

For best results in growing strawberries a good system of rotation should be followed. In any system of rotation, a leguminous crop should be turned under once in three or four years, and a cultivated crop grown on the area the season before the strawberry plants are set. The following system of rotation is a good one for the South:

1. Strawberries one or two years, followed by cowpeas after the strawberry plants are plowed under.

# Strawberries one or two years, followed by cowpeas after the strawberry plants are plowed under.

2. Early vegetables followed by cowpeas or late vegetables.

# Early vegetables followed by cowpeas or late vegetables.

3. Corn with cowpeas between the rows. The corn stubble and the cowpeas should be turned under for strawberries the following year, in case the plants are set in the spring.

# Corn with cowpeas between the rows. The corn stubble and the cowpeas should be turned under for strawberries the following year, in case the plants are set in the spring.

In sections where vegetables are not grown commercially, oats may follow the cowpeas turned under the second season.

In sections where vegetables are not grown commercially, oats may follow the cowpeas turned under the second season.

Berries which are well graded and sorted and put in clean, neat, attractive packages of standard sizes command the highest price and sell most readily. The type of crate depends upon the boxes used. Any crate that is substantially built and well ventilated is satisfactory, but the cost is an important consideration, as they are not returned to the shipper. The largest crate that can be handled conveniently is the one to use, as the large ones are cheaper in proportion to the quantity of berries they carry. The twenty-four- and thirty-two- quart crates are in most common use, although in some sections the sixty-quart crate is employed. Crates with hinged lids have the advantage that they can be opened easily and quickly, and as a result invite inspection. A large part of the Florida crop is packed in quart boxes which are placed in pony refrigerators for shipment to northern markets.

Berries which are well graded and sorted and put in clean, neat, attractive packages of standard sizes command the highest price and sell most readily. The type of crate depends upon the boxes used. Any crate that is substantially built and well ventilated is satisfactory, but the cost is an important consideration, as they are not returned to the shipper. The largest crate that can be handled conveniently is the one to use, as the large ones are cheaper in proportion to the quantity of berries they carry. The twenty-four- and thirty-two- quart crates are in most common use, although in some sections the sixty-quart crate is employed. Crates with hinged lids have the advantage that they can be opened easily and quickly, and as a result invite inspection. A large part of the Florida crop is packed in quart boxes which are placed in pony refrigerators for shipment to northern markets.

The strawberry in California and northward.

The strawberry in California and northward.

Within the past few years a new race of strawberries has been developed commonly called everbearing from their habit of producing fruit after the regular strawberry season has passed. This strain has now been permanently established and it is a great source of satisfaction to strawberry-lovers to have fruit after the regular season is over. There are several varieties of these everbearing strawberries, and every garden should have a few of them. They may be planted in any of the ways suggested for the regular varieties but they should have plenty of water during the summer to insure the full development of the fruit. In most locations in the northern states these varieties begin to ripen early in August and continue until heavy frosts. It is advisable to cut off the blossoms in May if a large crop is wanted in August, but they will fruit at both times after a short rest in July. Many of these varieties have a tendency to make too many plants and it is well to follow the same general directions as given for growing the standard varieties. Most of these everbearing varieties do very well in the usual hill culture.  

Within the past few years a new race of strawberries has been developed commonly called everbearing from their habit of producing fruit after the regular strawberry season has passed. This strain has now been permanently established and it is a great source of satisfaction to strawberry-lovers to have fruit after the regular season is over. There are several varieties of these everbearing strawberries, and every garden should have a few of them. They may be planted in any of the ways suggested for the regular varieties but they should have plenty of water during the summer to insure the full development of the fruit. In most locations in the northern states these varieties begin to ripen early in August and continue until heavy frosts. It is advisable to cut off the blossoms in May if a large crop is wanted in August, but they will fruit at both times after a short rest in July. Many of these varieties have a tendency to make too many plants and it is well to follow the same general directions as given for growing the standard varieties. Most of these everbearing varieties do very well in the usual hill culture.  

Forcing of strawberries. (Figs. 3731, 3732.)

Forcing of strawberries.

The forcing of strawberries for a winter crop has not as yet become of any great commercial importance in North America. Some gardeners grow a few potted plants for either Christmas or Easter decoration. Very few, if any, commercial growers are forcing strawberries exclusively to any profitable extent. The few strawberries that are forced are grown either in pots or planted out on benches. The former method is the one generally employed. There are several good reasons for this, some of which are: first, the confinement of the roots; second, the ability to ripen the crowns in the fall; third, the control of fertilizers and liquid manure: fourth, the privilege of having the crop grown in several houses at one time or brought from a coolhouse into heat; and fifth, the opportunity to supply particular demand of the potted plants or their fruits. The first expense of the pot method is considerably more than when the plants are grown in the benches, but after the pots are once purchased the cost of each method should be about the same.

The forcing of strawberries for a winter crop has not as yet become of any great commercial importance in North America. Some gardeners grow a few potted plants for either Christmas or Easter decoration. Very few, if any, commercial growers are forcing strawberries exclusively to any profitable extent. The few strawberries that are forced are grown either in pots or planted out on benches. The former method is the one generally employed. There are several good reasons for this, some of which are: first, the confinement of the roots; second, the ability to ripen the crowns in the fall; third, the control of fertilizers and liquid manure: fourth, the privilege of having the crop grown in several houses at one time or brought from a coolhouse into heat; and fifth, the opportunity to supply particular demand of the potted plants or their fruits. The first expense of the pot method is considerably more than when the plants are grown in the benches, but after the pots are once purchased the cost of each method should be about the same.

Strict attention must be given to syringing the foliage every pleasant day. Keep the walks wet until the time of blossoming. This moisture keeps down the red-spider. At blossoming time the house should be allowed to dry out, and a free circulation of air should be maintained, through the middle of the day, in order to ripen the pollen. It is necessary to pollinate each flower by hand. The pollination may be done in the middle of the day while the houses are dry. A small camel-hair brush is useful for distributing the pollen. A ladle or spoon should also be provided in order to carry the surplus pollen. The surplus pollen may be used on varieties that are pistillate or do not have pollen enough to set their own fruits. Six to eight fruits are enough for a 6-inch pot. When these are set the remaining flowers should be cut off, in order that the entire strength of the plant may go to swelling the chosen fruits. After swelling begins, liquid manure should be given. During the first week give one dilute application. After this give two applications a week, increasing the strength of the manure liquid each time. Well-rotted cow-manure or sheep-droppings furnish good material for this purpose. When the fruits are coloring the liquid manure should be withheld and only clear water given. As they swell, the fruits will need support, and the best method of furnishing this is probably by using small-meshed window-screen wire cut into suitable squares. These squares may be laid on the pot, under the clusters of fruits. They hold the fruits away from the sides of the pots, protect them from any water or liquid manure that is given the plants, and enhance the beauty of the potted plant. After one fruiting, the plants are worthless.

Strict attention must be given to syringing the foliage every pleasant day. Keep the walks wet until the time of blossoming. This moisture keeps down the red-spider. At blossoming time the house should be allowed to dry out, and a free circulation of air should be maintained, through the middle of the day, in order to ripen the pollen. It is necessary to pollinate each flower by hand. The pollination may be done in the middle of the day while the houses are dry. A small camel-hair brush is useful for distributing the pollen. A ladle or spoon should also be provided in order to carry the surplus pollen. The surplus pollen may be used on varieties that are pistillate or do not have pollen enough to set their own fruits. Six to eight fruits are enough for a 6-inch pot. When these are set the remaining flowers should be cut off, in order that the entire strength of the plant may go to swelling the chosen fruits. After swelling begins, liquid manure should be given. During the first week give one dilute application. After this give two applications a week, increasing the strength of the manure liquid each time. Well-rotted cow-manure or sheep-droppings furnish good material for this purpose. When the fruits are coloring the liquid manure should be withheld and only clear water given. As they swell, the fruits will need support, and the best method of furnishing this is probably by using small-meshed window-screen wire cut into suitable squares. These squares may be laid on the pot, under the clusters of fruits. They hold the fruits away from the sides of the pots, protect them from any water or liquid manure that is given the plants, and enhance the beauty of the potted plant. After one fruiting, the plants are worthless.

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The strawberry is an [[accessory fruit]]; that is, the fleshy part is derived not from the ovaries which are the "seeds" (actually [[achene]]s) but from the peg at the bottom of the [[hypanthium]] that held the ovaries. So from a technical standpoint, the seeds are the actual fruits of the plant, and the flesh of the strawberry is modified receptacle tissue.  It is Whitish-Green as it develops and in most species turns red when ripe.

Fragaria (Latin, fragrance, from the smell of the fruit). Rosaceae. Strawberry. Low perennial creeping herbs grown for the excellent fruit, and one or two species for ornament.

Plant stemless, with scaly rootstock or crown, and rooting runners: lvs. palmately 3-foliolate and toothed, all from the crown: fls. white or reddish, in corymbose racemes on slender, leafless scapes, sometimes lacking stamens; calyx deeply 5-lobed and reinforced by 5 sepal-like bracts; petals 5, obovate, elliptic or orbicular; stamens many, short; pistils many, on a conical receptacle, becoming small and hard achenes and persisting on the enlarging receptacle, which becomes pulpy and edible.—The fragarias are exceedingly variable. Of the true fragarias, about 4 species-types are interesting to the horticulturist as the parents of the garden strawberries:—F. chiloensis, the probable original of the ordinary cultivated strawberries of Amer.; F. virginiana, which was early domesticated, and of which some trace still remains in cult, varieties; F. moschata, the Hautbois, and F. vesca, the alpine and perpetual strawberries, which are little cult, in this country.

The typical modern strawberry, of species fragaria, comes from the [[Americas]], and is a hybrid of both north and south american varieties. Ironically, the crossbreeding was done in Europe to correct a mistake; the European [[horticulturist]]s had only brought female South American plants, and were forced to cross them with the North American variety in order to get fruit and seeds.

 

Fragaria comes from "fragans", meaning odorous, an allusion to the perfumed flesh of the fruit. Madam [[Thérésa Tallien|Tallien]], a great figure of the [[French Revolution]], who was nicknamed Our Lady of [[Thermidorian Reaction|Thermidor]], used to take baths full of strawberries to keep the full radiance of her skin.

[[Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle|Fontenelle]], centenarian writer and gourmet of the 18th century, considered his long life was due to the strawberries he used to eat.

 

There are more than 20 different ''Fragaria'' species worldwide.  Key to the classification of strawberry species is recognizing that they vary in the number of [[chromosomes]]. There are seven basic ''types'' of chromosomes that they all have in common. However, they exhibit different [[polyploidy]]. Some species are diploid, having two sets of the seven chromosomes (14 chromosomes total). Others are tetraploid (four sets, 28 chromosomes total), hexaploid (six sets, 42 chromosomes total), octoploid (eight sets, 56 chromosomes total), or decaploid (ten sets, 70 chromosomes total).

 

As a rough rule (with exceptions), strawberry species with more chromosomes tend to be more robust and produce larger plants with larger berries (Darrow).

 

 

 

 

;Octoploid species and hybrids

 

 

Numerous other species have been proposed. Some are now recognized as subspecies of one of the above species (see GRIN taxonomy database).

 

The [[Mock Strawberry]] and [[Barren Strawberry]], which both bear resemblance to ''Fragaria'', are closely related species in the genus ''[[Potentilla]]''.  The [[Strawberry tree]] is an unrelated species.

 

A number of species of [[Lepidoptera]] feed on strawberry plants; for details see [[list of Lepidoptera which feed on Strawberry plants|this list]].

 

 

 

The name is derived from [[Old English language|Old English]] ''[[wiktionary:streawberige|strēawberiġe]]'' which is a compound of ''streaw'' meaning "straw" and ''berige'' meaning "berry". The reason for this is unclear. It may derive from the strawlike appearance of the runners, or from an obsolete denotation of straw, meaning "chaff", referring to the scattered appearance of the achenes.

 

Interestingly, in other Germanic countries there is a tradition of collecting wild strawberries by threading them on straws. In those countries people find ''straw-berry'' to be an easy word to learn considering their association with straws.

 

There is an alternative theory that the name derives from the Anglo-Saxon verb for "strew" (meaning to spread around) which was streabergen (Strea means "strew" and Bergen means "berry" or "fruit") and thence to streberie, straiberie, strauberie, straubery, strauberry, and finally, "strawberry", the word which we use today. The name might have come from the fact that the fruit and various runners appear "strewn" along the ground.

 

[[Popular etymology]] has it that it comes from gardeners' practice of [[mulch|mulching]] strawberries with [[straw]] to protect the fruits from rot (a pseudoetymology that can be found in non-linguistic sources such as the [[Old Farmer's Almanac]] 2005). However, there is no evidence that the Anglo-Saxons ever grew strawberries, and even less that they knew of this practice.<!--see talk page for some discussion on this claim-->

 

Image:Strawberry surface closeup.jpg|Closeup of the surface of a strawberry

Image:Strawberry flower.jpg|Strawberry flowers and developing fruit

Image:Strawberries picked.jpg|Harvested strawberries

Image:Whole_wild_strawberry_plant_UK_2006.JPG|A wild strawberry plant, showing characteristic shape

Image:Strawberry farm in DaHu Taiwan.JPG|Strawberry farm in DaHu, [[Taiwan]]

 

 

*The Norwegian municipalities of [[Norddal]] and [[Kvæfjord]] have strawberries in their coat-of-arms.

==See also==

==References==

*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963

*[[Garden Strawberry]]

*[http://www.latimes.com/features/food/la-fo-marketwatch0409-20100410,0,1322192.story LA Times: When and how to buy strawberries]

*[[Epigynous berry]]

*[http://www.latimes.com/features/food/la-fo-marketwatch-20100416,0,4470304.story LA Times: A world of extraordinary flavors in specialty and exotic strawberries]

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<!--- xxxxx  *Flora: The Gardener's Bible, by Sean Hogan. Global Book Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0881925381  -->

<!--- xxxxx  *Sunset National Garden Book. Sunset Books, Inc., 1997. ISBN 0376038608  -->

==References and external links==

==External links==

*{{wplink}}

*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Fragaria GRIN Fragaria Taxonomy Database] Listing of ''Fragaria'' species, also from a USDA website

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