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{{Taxobox
| color = lightblue
| name = ''Amanita muscaria''
| status = {{StatusSecure}}
| image = Amanita muscaria 3 vliegenzwammen op rij.jpg
| image_width = 220px
| image_caption = ''A. muscaria''<br> showing various growth stages.
| regnum = [[Fungus|Fungi]]
| divisio = [[Basidiomycota]]
| classis = [[Homobasidiomycetes]]
| subclassis = [[Hymenomycete]]s
| ordo = [[Agaricales]]
| familia = [[Amanitaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Amanita]]''
| species = '''''A. muscaria'''''
| binomial = ''Amanita muscaria''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]) [[William Jackson Hooker|Hook.]]
}}
{{mycomorphbox
| name = Amanita muscaria
| whichGills = free
| capShape = flat
| capShape2 = convex
| hymeniumType=gills
| stipeCharacter=ring and volva
| ecologicalType=mycorrhizal
| sporePrintColor=white
| howEdible=poisonous
| howEdible2=psychoactive}}
'''''Amanita muscaria''''' (also known by the English-language common name '''fly agaric''') is a [[psychoactive]] [[agaric]] species found commonly throughout much of the world. The quintessential [[toadstool]], it is a large imposing white-gilled white-spotted red [[mushroom]], one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture. Though it is generally considered poisonous, ''Amanita muscaria'' is otherwise famed for its [[hallucinogenic]] properties with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound [[muscimol]]. The mushroom has had a religious significance in [[Siberia]]n culture and possibly also in ancient [[India]]n and [[Scandinavia]]n cultures.
Native throughout the [[temperate]] and [[boreal]] regions of the [[Northern Hemisphere]], ''Amanita muscaria'' has been unintentionally conveyed to many countries in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], generally as a [[symbiont]] with pine plantations, and is now a true [[cosmopolitan]] species.
The common names in [[English language|English]], ''fly agaric'' or ''fly mushroom'', are generally thought to derive from its [[Europe]]an use as an [[insecticide]], sprinkled in milk.<ref>Atkinson GF. (1901) Studies of American Fungi: mushrooms : edible, poisonous, etc. 2nd edn. Andrus & Church, Ithaca, NY. ISBN 0028406001</ref> However an alternate derivation proposes that the term ''fly-'' refers not to insects as such but rather the [[delirium]] resulting from consumption of the [[fungus]]. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness.<ref name = "Michelot03">Michelot D, Menendez-Howell LM. (2003). [http://www.erowid.org/references/refs_view.php?A=ShowDocPartFrame&C=ref&ID=6472&DocPartID=6005 ''Amanita muscaria'': chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology.] ''Mycological Research'' '''107''' (2): 131–146 {{DOI|10.1017/S0953756203007305}}</ref>
== Description ==
A large conspicuous [[mushroom]], ''Amanita muscaria'' is generally common and numerous where it grows, often being found in groups with [[basidiocarp]]s in all stages of development. Fully grown, the bright red cap is usually around 8-20 cm (3-8 [[inches]]) in diameter, though larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow flecks (warts) which are remnants of the [[universal veil]], a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. The gills are white, as is the sporeprint. The stem is white, 5-20 cm high (approximately 2-8 inches), with a basal [[Volva (mycology)|bulb]] that bears universal veil remnants (more or less distinct rings or ruffs), and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the [[partial veil]] (which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white ring (annulus). It can be quite wide and flaccid in age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.<ref name = "Ultimatemush">{{cite book | author = Jordan P & Wheeler S | year = 2001 | title = The Ultimate Mushroom Book | publisher = Herme
s House | ISBN = 0831730803}} ISBN 0831730803</ref>
[[Image:Amanita muscaria tyndrum.jpg|thumb|left|A mature ''Amanita muscaria'', showing a flat pileus<br>near [[Tyndrum]], [[Scotland]]]]
Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like a white egg, covered in the white warty material of the universal veil. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil, and the cap changes from hemispherical to plate-like and flat in mature specimens.<ref>{{cite book|author=Zeitlmayr L|year=1976|title=Wild Mushrooms:An Illustrated Handbook|publisher=garden City Press, Hertfordshire|id=ISBN 0-584-10324-7}}</ref>
Though very distinctive, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red species in the Americas such as ''[[Armillaria]]'' cf. ''mellea'' and the edible ''Amanita basii'', a Mexican species similar to ''[[Amanita caesarea|A. caesarea]]'' of Europe. Poison control centers in the U.S. and Canada are aware that "amarillo" is a common name of caesarea-like species in Mexico, not just the Spanish for 'yellow'.
''Amanita caesarea'' can be distinguished as it has an entire orange red cap, lacking the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric. Furthermore the stem, gills and ring are bright yellow, not white.<ref>{{cite book | author = Haas H | year = 1969 | title = The Young Specialist Looks at Fungi| publisher = Burke | id=ISBN 0222794143}}</ref> Finally the volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales.<ref>{{cite book | author = Krieger LCC | year = 1967 | title = The Mushroom Handbook| publisher = Dover| id=ISBN 0486218619}}</ref>
In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the local ''[[Amanita xanthocephala]]'', which grows in association with Eucalypts. This species also generally lacks the white warts of ''A. muscaria'' and bears no ring.
== Classification ==
''Amanita muscaria'' is the [[type species]] of the genus ''[[Amanita]]''. By extension, it is also the type species of ''Amanita'' subgenus ''Amanita'', as well as section ''Amanita'' within this subgenus. ''Amanita'' subgenus ''Amanita'' includes all ''Amanita'' with [[wikt:inamyloid|inamyloid]] spores. ''Amanita'' section ''Amanita'' includes those species with patchy [[universal veil]] remnants, including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings and the veil remnants on the pileus being a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a bulbous base.<ref name=singer>[[Rolf Singer|Singer R]]. (1986). The Agaricales in modern taxonomy (4th ed). ISBN 3874292541</ref> <ref name=jenkins>Jenkins DT. (1986). ''Amanita'' of North America. ISBN 0-916422-55-0</ref>
''Amanita'' section ''Amanita'' consists of ''A. muscaria'' and its close relatives, including ''[[Amanita pantherina|A. pantherina]]'' (the panther agaric), ''[[Amanita gemmata]]'', ''[[Amanita farinosa|A. farinosa]]'', and ''[[Amanita xanthocephala|A. xanthocephala]]''.<ref>Tulloss RE. (2007). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/sectaman.html "''Amanita'' sect. ''Amanita''"] (webpage).</ref> Modern fungal taxonomists have classified ''Amanita muscaria'' and its allies this way based on gross morphology and spore inamyloidy. Two recent [[molecular phylogenetic]] studies have confirmed this classification as natural.<ref>Moncalvo J-M, Drehmel D, & Vilgalys R. (2000). [http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/moncalvo2000mpe.pdf Variation in modes and rates of evolution in nuclear and mitochondrial ribosomal DNA in the mushroom genus ''Amanita'' (Agaricales, Basidiomycota): phylogenetic implications.] ''Molecular Phylogenetic and Evolution'' '''16''':48_63. {{DOI|10.1006/mpev.2000.0782}}</ref> <ref>Drehmel D, Moncalvo J-M, & Vilgalys R. (1999). Molecular phylogeny of ''Amanita'' based on large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and character evolution. ''Mycologia'' '''91''': 610-618. ([http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/amanitaMYCOLOGIA.html abstract])</ref>
===Varieties===
[[Image:Amanita muscaria americana.jpg|thumb|right|''Amanita muscaria'' var.
''guessowii'' has a yellow cap surface.<br>[[Middlesex Fells Reservation|Middlesex Fells]], [[Massachusetts]]]]
''Amanita muscaria'' has considerable morphological variation and many authorities recogize a number of subspecies or varieties within the species. In ''The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy'', Rolf Singer listed three subspecies, though without description: ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''muscaria'', ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''americana'', and ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''flavivolvata''.<ref name=singer/>
Contemporary authorities recognize up to seven varieties:
* var. '''''muscaria''''', the typical red-and-white spotted variety. Some authorities, such as Rodham Tulloss, only use this name for Eurasian and western [[Alaskan]] populations.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss1>Tulloss RE. (2006a). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscmusc.html "''Amanita muscaria'' (L.:Fr.) Lam. var. muscaria"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''flavivolvata''''' is red, with yellow to yellowish-white warts, and occurs in the western regions of the North American continent, from southern Alaska down through the [[Rocky Mountains]], through [[Central America]], to at least Andean [[Colombia]]. Rodham Tulloss uses this name to describe all "typical" ''A. muscaria'' from indigenous New World populations from Alaska southward.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss2>Tulloss RE. (2006b). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscflav.html "''Amanita muscaria'' subsp. ''flavivolvata'' Singer"] ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''alba''''', an uncommon fungus, has a white to silvery white cap with white warts but otherwise similar to the usual form.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name = "Phillips91">{{cite book | author = Phillips R. | year = 1991 | title = Mushrooms of North America | publisher = Boston: Little, Brown & Co | id = ISBN 0-316-70612-4 (hardcover) ISBN 0-316-70613-2 (paperback)}}</ref>
* var. '''''formosa''''', has a yellow to orange-yellow cap with yellowish or tan warts and stem. Some authorities use this name for all ''A. muscaria'' fitting this description worldwide (cf, Jenkins), others (cf, Tulloss) restrict its use to Eurasian populations.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss3>Tulloss RE. (2006c). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscgues.html "''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''guessowii'' Veselý"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''guessowii''''' is yellow to orange, with center of cap more orange or reddish orange than the outer part. It is found throughout North America, but is most common in northeastern North America, from [[Newfoundland]] and [[Quebec]] down to [[Tennessee]]. Some authorities (cf, Jenkins) treat these populations as part of ''A. muscaria'' var. ''formosa'', while others (cf, Tulloss) recognize it as a distinct variety.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss3/>
* var. '''''persicina''''' is pinkish to orangish "melon" colored with poorly formed or absent remnants of universal veil on the stem and vasal bulb, known from the Southeastern Coastal areas of the U.S.A, described in 1977.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss4>Tulloss RE. (2006d). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscpers.html "''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''persicina'' Dav. T. Jenkins"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''regalis''''' (= ''Amanita regalis''), from [[Scandinavia]] and [[Alaska]],<ref>Miller OK. (1982). Higher fungi in Alaskan subarctic tundra and taiga plant communities. In: ''Arctic and Alpine Mycology'' (eds Laursen GA, Ammirati JF), p 123–149. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295958561</ref> is liver-brown and has yellow warts. It appears to be uniformly distinctive and some authorities (cf, Tulloss) treat it as a separate species, while others (cf, Jenkins) treat it as a variety of ''A. muscaria''.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss5>Tulloss RE. (2006e). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/regaliss.html "''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
A 2006 [[molecular phylogenetic]] study of different r
egional populations of ''A. muscaria'' by Geml, et al. found three distinct [[clades]] within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. (Alaska contains examples of all three clades, leading to the hypothesis that this was the center of diversification of this species.) The study also looked at four named varieties of this species; var. ''alba'', var. ''flavivolvata'', var. ''formosa'' (including var. ''guessowii''), and var. ''regalis'' from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are simply [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphisms]] found throughout the species rather than distinct subspecies or varieties.<ref name = "Geml06">Geml J, Laursen GA, O’Neill K, Nusbaum HC, Taylor DL. (2006). [http://users.iab.uaf.edu/~jozsef_geml/AmanitaME.pdf Beringian origins and cryptic speciation events in the fly agaric (''Amanita muscaria'')]. Molecular Ecology 15:225–239. {{DOI|10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02799.x}}</ref>
== Distribution and habitat==
''Amanita muscaria'' is a cosmopolitan mushroom, native to [[birch]], [[pine]], [[spruce]], and fir woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere,<ref name = "Geml06"/> including high elevations of warmer latitudes in regions like Central America. Interestingly, a recent molecular study proposes an ancestral origin in the [[Siberia|Siberian]]–[[Beringia|Beringian]] region in the [[Tertiary]] period before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America.<ref name = "Geml06"> </ref> Though generally encountered in autumn, the season can vary in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast. It is often found in similar locations to ''[[Boletus edulis]]''.<ref name = "Bnejamin95"/> It has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia,<ref>Reid DA (1980) A monograph of the Australian species of ''Amanita'' Persoon ex Hooker (Fungi). ''Australian Journal of Botany'', Supplementary Series '''8''':1–96</ref> New Zealand, South Africa<ref>Reid DA, Eicker A (1991) South African fungi: the genus ''Amanita''. ''Mycological Research'', '''95''', 80–95.</ref> and South America, where it usually occurs under introduced pine trees.
The fungal equivalent of a [[weed]] in southeastern Australia, it appears to have formed new associations with southern beech (''[[Nothofagus]]'') in [[Tasmania]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and invading native rainforest, where there are concerns it may be displacing native species.<ref>Fuhrer, Bruce (2005) A Field Guide to Australian Fungi. Bloomings Books. ISBN 1-876473-51-7</ref> Furthermore it appears to be spreading northwards with recent reports near [[Port Macquarie, New South Wales|Port Macquarie]] on the [[New South Wales]] north coast.<ref>May T. (2006). [http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/?f=16290 News from the fungimap president.] ''Fungimap Newsletter'' '''29''':1</ref>
When imported to a new country, ''A. muscaria'' can jump to native species (for example, ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' in [[Australia]]). It can then be exported with its new [[symbiont]] (for example, from Australia to Argentina).
== Biochemistry==
''Amanita muscaria'' contains a number of biologically active agents, at least two of which are known to be '''[[psychoactive]]'''. [[Muscimol]] (3hydroxy-5-aminomethy-1 isoxazole, an unsaturated cyclic [[hydroxamic acid]]) is the most significant. It is the product of the [[decarboxylation]] or drying of [[ibotenic acid]], another important compound in the biochemistry of the fly agaric. [[Muscarine]], discovered in [[1869]],<ref>Schmiedeberg O, Koppe R. (1869). Das Muscarin, das giftige Alkaloid des Fliegenpilzes. Leipzig: FCW Vogel.</ref> was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in ''A. muscaria'' until the mid 20th century,<ref>Kögl F, Salemink CA, Shouten H, Jellinek F. (1957). Über Muscarin III. ''Recueil des Travaux Chimi
ques des Pays-Bas'' '''76''':109–127.</ref> <ref>Cox HC, Hardegger E, Kögl F, Liechti P, Lohse F, Salemink CA. (1958). Uber Muscarin: Uber die Synthese von racemischem Muscarin, seine Spaltung in die Antipoden und die Herstellung von (x)-Muscarin aus D-Glucosamin. ''Helvetica Chimica Acta'' '''41''':229–234.</ref> when researchers in England,<ref>Bowden K, Drysdale AC. (1965). A novel constituent of ''Amanita muscaria''. ''Tetrahedron Letters'' '''6''': 727–728. {{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4039(01)83973-3}}</ref> Japan,<ref>Takemoto T, Nakajima T. (1964). Structure of ibotenic acid. ''Journal of the Pharmacological Society of Japan'' '''84''': 1232–1233.</ref> and Switzerland<ref>Eugster CH, Müller GFR, Good R. (1965). Active principles from ''Amanita muscaria'': ibotenic acid and muscazone. ''Tetrahedron Letters'' '''6''': 1813–1815. {{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4039(00)90133-3}}</ref> recognized that these effects were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol.<ref name ="Bnejamin95">Benjamin DR. (1995). ''Mushrooms, Poisons and Panaceas: A Handbook for Naturalists, Mycologists, and Physicians''. W H Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-2649-1</ref>
[[Ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]] are structurally related to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system: [[glutamic acid]] and [[GABA]] respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters (muscimol is a potent [[GABA A receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] [[agonist]]) which are involved in the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the brain dysfunction found in intoxication. Following ingestion ibotenic acid is rapidly decarboxylated to muscimol which would appear to be the agent responsible for the majority of symptoms.<ref name = "Michelot03"/><ref name="Satora05">Satora L, Pach D, Butryn B, Hydzik P, Balicka-Slusarczyk B. (2005). Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) poisoning, case report and review. ''Toxicon'' '''45''': 941-3. {{DOI|10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.01.005}}</ref> When muscimol is administered, it has been shown active in the [[cerebral cortex]], [[hippocampus]], and [[cerebellum]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
[[Muscazone]] is another compound more recently isolated from european specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by [[ultra-violet radiation]].<ref>Fritz H, Gagneux AR, Zbinden R & Eugster CH. (1965) The structure of muscazone. ''Tetrahedron Letters'' '''6''' 2075–2076. {{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4039(00)90133-3}}</ref> It is of minor [[Biological activity|pharmacological activity]] compared with the other agents.<ref name = "Michelot03"/>
[[Muscarine]] binds with [[Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor]] and lead to the excitation of the neurons bearing these receptors. The levels in ''Amanita muscaria'' are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi,<ref>Eugster CH. (1968). "Wirkstoffe aus dem Fligenpilz" ''Naturwissenschaften'', '''55''':305–13. {{DOI|10.1007/BF00600445}}</ref> such as the deadly ''[[Inocybe patouillardii]]'' or small white ''[[Clitocybe]]'' species ''[[Clitocybe dealbata|C. dealbata]]'' and ''C. rivulosa''.
[[Image:Amanita muscaria 2.jpg|thumb|right|''Amanita muscaria'' growing in autumn [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[woodland]]]]
===Toxicity===
Victims of ''Amanita muscaria'' poisoning are generally either toddlers or people ingesting it for a hallucinogenic experience.<ref name ="Bnejamin95">Benjamin DR (1995) Mushrooms: Poisons and Panaceas A Handbook for Naturalists, Mycologists, and Physicians. W H Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-2649-1</ref>. About one gram of ''A. muscaria'' or 50-100 mg ibotenic acid is considered a toxic dose.<ref name=chilton>Chilton WS. (1975). The course of an intentional poisoning. ''MacIlvanea'' 2: 17.</ref> <ref>von Theobald W, Büch O, Kunz HA, Krupp P, Stenger EG, Heimann H. (1968). Pharmacological and experimental psychological studies on 2 components of the toadstool (''Amanita muscaria''). Pharmakologische und experimentalpsychologische Untersuchungen mit 2 Inhaltsstoffen des Fliegenspilzes (''Amanita muscaria''). ''Arzneim Forschung'' '
''18''': 311–315.</ref>
Depending on the amount ingested effects can range from [[nausea]] and twitching to drowsiness, [[choline]]rgic effects (low [[blood pressure]], [[sweat]]ing and [[saliva]]tion), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, [[euphoria]], relaxation, and [[Vertigo (medical)|loss of equilibrium]]. Retrograde [[amnesia]] frequently results following recovery.<ref name="Benjamin92">Benjamin D. (1992). Mushroom poisoning in infants and children: the Amanita pantherina/muscaria group. ''Journal of toxicology: Clinical toxicology'' '''30''': 13-22.</ref> <ref name="Buck63">Buck R. (1963) Toxicity of Amanita muscaria. ''JAMA'' '''185''': 663-4.</ref> <ref name="Satora05"/>
In cases of serious poisoning it causes a [[delirium]], characterised by bouts of marked [[agitation]] with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods of [[CNS]] depression. [[Seizures]] and [[coma]] may also occur in severe poisonings.<ref name="Satora05"/> Effects typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for a number of days. <ref name=chilton/><ref name="Brvar06">Brvar M, Mozina M, Bunc M. (2006). Prolonged psychosis after Amanita muscaria ingestion. ''Wiener klinische Wochenschrift'' '''118''': 294-7.{{DOI|10.1007/s00508-006-0581-6}}</ref> In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 hours. The effect is highly variable and individuals can react quite differently to the similar doses.<ref name="Benjamin92"/><ref name=chilton> </ref> <ref name ="Ott76">Ott J. (1976) ''Hallucinogenic Plants of North America''. Wingbow Press, Berkeley, CA. ISBN 0-914728-16-4</ref>
Deaths from ''A. muscaria'' are extremely rare. A historical journal article reported 2 fatalities occurring in North America. <ref>Cagliari GE. (1897). Mushroom Poisoning. ''Medical Record'' '''52''': 298.</ref> Although with modern medical treatment the prognosis is generally good.<ref>Tupalska-Wilczyńska K, Ignatowicz R, Poziemski A, Wójcik H, Wilczyński G. (1996). Poisoning with spotted and red mushrooms--pathogenesis, symptoms, treatment. ''Wiadomości lekarskie'' '''49''': 66-71.</ref>
The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region, season to season, further confusing the issue. It has been reported that spring and summer mushrooms may contain up to 10 times as much ibotenic/muscimol as compared to fall fruitings.<ref name="Benjamin92"/> Many older books list it as deadly, giving the impression that it is far more toxic than it really is. The vast majority of [[mushroom poisoning]] fatalities (90% or more) are from having eaten either the greenish to yellowish to brownish mottled death cap (''[[Amanita phalloides|A. phalloides]]'') or one of the destroying angels (''[[destroying angel|Amanita virosa]]'').
The toxic substances of ''A. muscaria'' are water soluble and susceptible to heat. The mushroom can be at least partly detoxified by thoroughly parboiling or leaching it in boiling water because it is said that the ibotenic acid turns into muscimol under this heat. This supposedly removes several unpleasant side effects due to the conversion of the much more toxic ibotenic acid into muscimol. According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.<ref>Rubel W. (2006). [http://www.williamrubel.com/mushrooms/amanita-muscaria/ Amanita muscaria] (webpage).</ref>
Some people who use the heated or dried mushrooms for their psychoactive effects believe they are toxic to the [[liver]] with repeated use. It is seen as similar to, but more acute, than the use of alcohol.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
===Psychoactive properties===
[[Image:Basket of Amanita muscaria.png|thumb|A basket of ''A. muscaria''.]]
In contrast to hallucinogenic mushrooms of the ''[[Psilocybe]]'', ''Amanita muscaria'' is rarely consumed recreationally.<ref>Samorini G. (1992). The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara desert, 9000–7000 B.P.). ''Integration: Journal of Mind-Moving Plants Culture'' '''2/3''': 69–78.
</ref> It is [[Controlled Substances Act|unscheduled]] in the United States. Any sales of ''Amanita muscaria'' for human ingestion are regulated by the FDA. Most other countries do not have laws against the use of ''Amanita muscaria'', as it is currently legal and un-controlled under UN international law.
The active ingredient is excreted in the [[urine]] of those consuming the mushrooms, and it has sometimes been the practice for a [[shamanism|shaman]] to consume the mushrooms, and the rest of the [[tribe]] to drink his urine: the shaman, in effect, partially detoxifying the drug (the sweat- and twitch-causing muscarine is absent in the urine).<ref name = "Soma68">Wasson RG. (1968). ''Soma: The Divine Mushroom of Immortality''. Harcourt Brace Jovanovick, Inc. ISBN 0-15-683800-1</ref> This was also not an uncommon practice in Siberia, where the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy, who could afford to buy the mushrooms.<ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> If a fly agaric is eaten, it is usually not fresh, but in its dried or cooked form, where ibotenic acid is converted to the more stable and far less poisonous muscimol.
===Insecticidal properties===
The various common names come from its European use as an [[insecticide]], sprinkled in milk. This practice was first recorded by [[Albertus Magnus]] in his work ''De vegetabilibus'' sometime before 1256, commenting:
:::''vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas''
:::("It is called the mushroom of flies, because crushed in milk it kills flies")<ref name = "Ramsbottom53">{{cite book | author = Ramsbottom J | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | id = ISBN 1870630092}}</ref>
This was known to [[Linnaeus]] who gave it the name ''Agaricus muscarius'', the specific name deriving from [[Latin]] ''musca'' meaning "fly". Similar to its English common name, the [[German language|German]], ''Fliegenpilz'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Vliegenzwam'', [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ''Röd flugsvamp'' and [[French language|French]] ''Amanite tue-mouches'', are derived from this property. The flykilling agent is now known to be [[ibotenic acid]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Nilson S & Persson O | year = 1977 | title = Fungi of Northern Europe 2: Gill-Fungi | publisher = Penguin | id = ISBN 0140630066}}</ref> Another compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein which is an insect attractor.<ref name = "Bnejamin95"/> <ref>Muto T, Sugawara R. (1970). Contribution in: Insect Behaviour of Natural Products (Paper Seminar) 1968: 189.</ref> Fly agaric is still used in this manner in parts of eastern Europe such as Poland and Romania. In England and Sweden it was also used for getting rid of bugs, and ''bug agaric'' was an old alternate name.<ref name = "Ramsbottom53"/>
== Cultural history ==
[[Image:Fliegenpilz01.JPG|thumb|right|Group of ''Amanita muscaria'', Westerholter Wald, [[Gelsenkirchen]], [[Germany]].]]
''Amanita muscaria'' was widely used as a [[hallucinogenic drug]] by many of the [[peoples of Siberia]]. Its use was known among almost all of the [[Uralic]]-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the [[Paleosiberian]]-speaking peoples of eastern Siberia. However, there are only isolated reports of ''A. muscaria'' use among the [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] and [[Turkic peoples]] of central Siberia and it is believed that hallucinogenic use of ''A. muscaria'' was largely not a practice of these peoples.<ref name="nyberg1">Nyberg H. (1992). Religious use of hallucinogenic fungi: A comparison between Siberian and Mesoamerican Cultures. Karstenia 32:71–80.</ref> <ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> In western Siberia, the use of ''A. muscaria'' was restricted to [[shamans]], who used it as an alternate method of achieving a trance state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve a trance state by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, ''A. muscaria'' was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously.<ref name="nyberg1"> </ref>
The [[Koryaks|Koryak]] of eastern Siberia have a
story about the fly agaric (''wapaq'') which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity [[Vahiyinin]] ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his spittle became the ''wapaq'', and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the ''wapaq'', Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, can learn from it.<ref name = "Ramsbottom53">{{cite book | author = Ramsbottom J | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | id=ISBN 1870630092}}</ref>
Beyond Siberia, there are only isolated and unconfirmed reports of the hallucinogenic use of ''Amanita muscaria''. One source mentions that it was once used among the [[Lapps]], but no firsthand accounts of this exist.<ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> [[:de:Hartmut Geerken|Hartmut Geerken]] claims to have discovered a tradition of recreational use this mushroom among a [[Parachi]]-speaking group in [[Afghanistan]].<ref> Mochtar, S.G. & H. Geerken. (1979). [http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/references/journal/1979_mochtar_afghanistan1.shtml The Hallucinogens Muscarine and Ibotenic Acid in the Middle Hindu Kush: A contribution on traditional medicinal mycology in Afghanistan.] Afghanistan Journal 6:62-65. (Translated with additional notes by Peter G. Werner, 1997.)</ref> There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of ''A. muscaria'' among two Subarctic [[Native American]] tribes, the [[Ojibway]]<ref>Keewaydinoquay. (1978). Puhpohwee for the people: a narrative account of some uses of fungi among the Ahnishinaubeg. Cambridge, MA: Botanical Museum of Harvard University. ISBN 1879528185</ref> <ref>Navet E. (1988). Les Ojibway et l'Amanite tue-mouche (''Amanita muscaria''). Pour une éthnomycologie des Indiens d'Amérique du Nord. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 74:163–180.</ref> and the [[Dogrib]].<ref>Larsen S. (1976). The Shaman's Doorway. New York: Station Hill Press. ISBN 0892816724</ref>
There are also claims that ''Amanita muscaria'' played in important role in a number of ancient religious rites, though these claims tend to be speculative and highly controversial. The best known of these claims is [[R. Gordon Wasson]]'s proposition that ''A. muscaria'' was the [[Soma]] talked about in [[Rig Veda]] of [[India]],<ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> and is less often also thought to be the [[amrita]] talked about in [[Buddhist]] scriptures.<ref name=siddhas>Hajicek-Dobberstein S. (1995). Soma siddhas and alchemical enlightenment: psychedelic mushrooms in Buddhist tradition. ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 48:99–118. {{DOI|10.1016/0378-8741(95)01292-L}} </ref> (''For more details on this topic, see'' [[Botanical identity of Soma-Haoma]].)
[[John Marco Allegro]] argues in ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'' that the [[Christian]] religion is derived from a sex and psychedelic mushroom cult,<ref>
{{cite book | author = Allegro, John. | year = 1970 | title = The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross: A Study of the Nature and Origins of Christianity within the Fertility Cults of the Ancient Near East | publisher = Hodder and Stoughton | location = London| id = ISBN 0-340-12875-5}}</ref>, although his theory has found little support by other scholars.{{Lopsided}}
The British writer [[Robert Graves]] theorizes in a preface to his book, [[The Greek Myths]], that the [[Dionysian]] rites were conducted under the influence of this mushroom.<ref>Graves R. (1955) ''The Greek Myths'', London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-001026-2</ref>
The notion that Nordic [[Viking]]s used ''Amanita muscaria'' to produce their [[berserker]] rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödman in 1784.<ref>Ödman S. (1784) Försök at utur Naturens Historia förklara de nordiska gamla Kämpars Berserka-gang (An attept to Explain the Berserk-raging of Ancient Nordic Warriors through Natural History). ''Kongliga Vetenskaps Academiens nya Handlingar'' '''5''': 240-247 (In: Wasson, 1968)</ref> Ödman based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans. The notion has become widesp
read since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers. Today, it is generally considered an urban legend or at best speculation that cannot be proven. Muscimole is a mild relaxant, and is unlikely to cause violent rage.
Ethnobotanist and ethnomycologist [[Giorgio Samorini]] suggests in his book "Animals and Psychedelics" a [[symbiotic]] relationship between toads, flies and fly agaric. Flies, after a lick of ''Amanita muscaria'' become inebriated and delirious prey for hungry toads that may have learned this, therefore hanging out around [[toadstool]]s. This relationship within nature illuminates an [[etymological]] keystone and example of [[zoopharmacognosy]]. This would also provide further [[biosemiotic]] insight into the ancient mystery of toads, flies and mushrooms appearing together in popular mythology and fairy lore.{{dubious}}
== Popular culture ==
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|[[Image:Amanite tue-mouche.JPG|thumb|The classic shape, well known in popular culture.]]
|-
|[[Image:Mushroom.jpg|thumb|A Super Mushroom as seen in ''[[Mario Kart: Double Dash!!]]'']]
|}
The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture, especially in children's books, film and more recently computer games; a partly grown ''Amanita muscaria'', as shown right, is clearly the fungus which this icon is based on.
===Children's culture===
Garden ornaments, and children's picture books depicting [[gnome]]s and [[fairies]], such as the [[Smurf]]s, very often show fly agaric mushrooms used as seats, or homes; it is rather uncommon for any other identifiable mushroom to be shown in this role. How this artistic convention arose is not known. Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series [[Mushroom (Mario)|Super Mario Bros.]] and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film [[Fantasia (film)|Fantasia]].<ref name = "Ramsbottom53">{{cite book | author = Ramsbottom J | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | id = ISBN }}</ref>
===Art===
The mushroom is mentioned in the song "The Flowers of Guatemala" by the American band [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]], providing the song's central image.
The band Shelleyan Orphan has an instrumental song entitled "Amanita Muscaria" on their 1989 album "Century Flower".
Image's dating back to 3500BC painted in caves at [[Tassili]], Algeria, depict mushrooms, more than likely including Amanita Muscaria Mushrooms acording to scholars. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6084218]
Fly agaric mushrooms appear on Christmas cards from around the world.
[[Carsten Höller]] created an Upside Down Mushroom Room featuring Amanita Muscaria [http://www.airdeparis.com/holler.htm]
===Santa Claus===
The [[Ethnobotany|ethnobotanist]] [[Jonathan Ott]] has suggested that the idea of [[Santa Claus]] and tradition of hanging stockings over the fireplace is based centrally upon the fly agaric mushroom itself.<ref name ="Ott76">Ott J. (1976) Hallucinogenic Plants of North America. Wingbow Press, Berkeley, CA. ISBN 0-914728:16-4 </ref> With its generally red and white color scheme, he argues that Santa Claus's suit is related to the mushroom. He also draws parallels with flying reindeer: reindeer are said to enjoy the mushroom because of its euphoric results, and therefore prance around in a hallucinogenic after-effect. It is true that reindeer will eat fly agarics, but there is no proof that it has any kind of mental effects on them. A direct connection to Santa Claus is not very likely, as until the [[20th century]], the red-and-white [[Santa suit]] familiar today was not especially common (''see also:'' [[Origins of Santa Claus]]). One scholar researching possible links between religious myths and the red mushroom notes, "If Santa Claus had but one eye [like [[Odin]]], or if [[Amanita muscaria#Uses|magic urine]] had been a part of his legend, his connection to the ''Amanita muscaria'' would be much easier to believe."<ref name=siddhas> </ref>
Ott also speculates abou
t Santa's bag of toys. According to historians, ancient [[Siberia]] was one of the first civilizations to use fly agaric in practice.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The Siberian hut, or [[yurt]], is equipped with a smokehole at the top. Ott suggests that a [[shaman]] entered the yurt through the smokehole with a sack of mushrooms in his hand, to be placed in stockings over the fireplace where they could be dried for celebratory use.
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* Högberg O. Flugsvampen och människan. (In Swedish) ISBN 91-7203-555-2
**[http://web.archive.org/web/20050505081819/http://www.carlssonbokforlag.se/humaniora/dox/Korrigeringar+Flugsv.pdf Chapter 2]
* Michelot D, Melendez-Howell LM. (2003) [http://www.erowid.org/references/refs_view.php?A=ShowDocPartFrame&C=ref&ID=6472&DocPartID=6005 ''Amanita muscaria'': chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology.] Mycological Research 107:131–146. {{DOI|10.1017/S0953756203007305}}
* [[Richard Evans Schultes|Schultes RE]], [[Albert Hofmann|Hofmann A]], Rätsch C. (2001). Plants of the gods: their sacred, healing, and hallucinogenic powers (2nd ed). ISBN 0892819790
* [[Peter Lamborn Wilson]]. "Ploughing the Clouds: The Search for Irish [[Soma]]"[http://www.amazon.com/Ploughing-Clouds-Search-Irish-Soma/dp/0872863263]</div>
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{commons}}
*[http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/dec99.html "Fungus of the Month: ''Amanita muscaria'', the fly agaric"] by Tom Volk, December 1999.
*[http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscmusc.html "''Amanita muscaria'' (L.:Fr.) Lam. var. muscaria"] by Rodham Tullos, ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages'', July 3, 2006.
*[http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscflav.html "''Amanita muscaria'' subsp. ''flavivolvata'' Singer"] by Rodham Tullos, ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages'', January 16, 2006.
*[http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Amanita_muscaria.html "Amanita muscaria"] by Michael Wood and Fred Stevens, ''Mykoweb.com'', 2004.
*[http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/amanitas.shtml Erowid Psychoactive Amanitas], ''[[Erowid.org]]'', Jan 3, 2007.
*[http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=47 Amanita muscaria], ''Lycaeum.org'', November 30, 2000.
*[http://www.shroomery.org/6234/Amanita-Muscaria Amanita muscaria], ''Shroomery.org'', 2007.
*[http://www.intox.org/databank/documents/fungi/aminita/pimg026.htm "Amanita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and others"], ''IPCS INTOX Databank''.
*[http://cannabisculture.com/articles/3136.html "The psychedelic secrets of Santa Claus"] by Dana Larsen, ''Cannabis Culture Magazine'', December 18, 2003. – An article which suggests modern Christmas traditions are based on ancient ''Amanita muscaria''-eating shamans of the northern steppes.
*[http://www.vodoushaman.com/flyagaric.html "Fly Agaric, Father Christmas and Lunch with a Toxicologist"] by Ross Heaven, ''Voudoushamen.com''.
*{{Myspace|amanitamuscaria_|Amanita Muscaria}}
{{Hallucinogenic mushrooms}}
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Basidiomycetes]]
[[Category:Psychoactive mushrooms]]
[[Category:Poisonous mushrooms]]
[[Category:Fungi naturalized in Australia]]
| color = lightblue
| name = ''Amanita muscaria''
| status = {{StatusSecure}}
| image = Amanita muscaria 3 vliegenzwammen op rij.jpg
| image_width = 220px
| image_caption = ''A. muscaria''<br> showing various growth stages.
| regnum = [[Fungus|Fungi]]
| divisio = [[Basidiomycota]]
| classis = [[Homobasidiomycetes]]
| subclassis = [[Hymenomycete]]s
| ordo = [[Agaricales]]
| familia = [[Amanitaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Amanita]]''
| species = '''''A. muscaria'''''
| binomial = ''Amanita muscaria''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]) [[William Jackson Hooker|Hook.]]
}}
{{mycomorphbox
| name = Amanita muscaria
| whichGills = free
| capShape = flat
| capShape2 = convex
| hymeniumType=gills
| stipeCharacter=ring and volva
| ecologicalType=mycorrhizal
| sporePrintColor=white
| howEdible=poisonous
| howEdible2=psychoactive}}
'''''Amanita muscaria''''' (also known by the English-language common name '''fly agaric''') is a [[psychoactive]] [[agaric]] species found commonly throughout much of the world. The quintessential [[toadstool]], it is a large imposing white-gilled white-spotted red [[mushroom]], one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture. Though it is generally considered poisonous, ''Amanita muscaria'' is otherwise famed for its [[hallucinogenic]] properties with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound [[muscimol]]. The mushroom has had a religious significance in [[Siberia]]n culture and possibly also in ancient [[India]]n and [[Scandinavia]]n cultures.
Native throughout the [[temperate]] and [[boreal]] regions of the [[Northern Hemisphere]], ''Amanita muscaria'' has been unintentionally conveyed to many countries in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], generally as a [[symbiont]] with pine plantations, and is now a true [[cosmopolitan]] species.
The common names in [[English language|English]], ''fly agaric'' or ''fly mushroom'', are generally thought to derive from its [[Europe]]an use as an [[insecticide]], sprinkled in milk.<ref>Atkinson GF. (1901) Studies of American Fungi: mushrooms : edible, poisonous, etc. 2nd edn. Andrus & Church, Ithaca, NY. ISBN 0028406001</ref> However an alternate derivation proposes that the term ''fly-'' refers not to insects as such but rather the [[delirium]] resulting from consumption of the [[fungus]]. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness.<ref name = "Michelot03">Michelot D, Menendez-Howell LM. (2003). [http://www.erowid.org/references/refs_view.php?A=ShowDocPartFrame&C=ref&ID=6472&DocPartID=6005 ''Amanita muscaria'': chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology.] ''Mycological Research'' '''107''' (2): 131–146 {{DOI|10.1017/S0953756203007305}}</ref>
== Description ==
A large conspicuous [[mushroom]], ''Amanita muscaria'' is generally common and numerous where it grows, often being found in groups with [[basidiocarp]]s in all stages of development. Fully grown, the bright red cap is usually around 8-20 cm (3-8 [[inches]]) in diameter, though larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow flecks (warts) which are remnants of the [[universal veil]], a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. The gills are white, as is the sporeprint. The stem is white, 5-20 cm high (approximately 2-8 inches), with a basal [[Volva (mycology)|bulb]] that bears universal veil remnants (more or less distinct rings or ruffs), and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the [[partial veil]] (which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white ring (annulus). It can be quite wide and flaccid in age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.<ref name = "Ultimatemush">{{cite book | author = Jordan P & Wheeler S | year = 2001 | title = The Ultimate Mushroom Book | publisher = Herme
s House | ISBN = 0831730803}} ISBN 0831730803</ref>
[[Image:Amanita muscaria tyndrum.jpg|thumb|left|A mature ''Amanita muscaria'', showing a flat pileus<br>near [[Tyndrum]], [[Scotland]]]]
Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like a white egg, covered in the white warty material of the universal veil. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil, and the cap changes from hemispherical to plate-like and flat in mature specimens.<ref>{{cite book|author=Zeitlmayr L|year=1976|title=Wild Mushrooms:An Illustrated Handbook|publisher=garden City Press, Hertfordshire|id=ISBN 0-584-10324-7}}</ref>
Though very distinctive, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red species in the Americas such as ''[[Armillaria]]'' cf. ''mellea'' and the edible ''Amanita basii'', a Mexican species similar to ''[[Amanita caesarea|A. caesarea]]'' of Europe. Poison control centers in the U.S. and Canada are aware that "amarillo" is a common name of caesarea-like species in Mexico, not just the Spanish for 'yellow'.
''Amanita caesarea'' can be distinguished as it has an entire orange red cap, lacking the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric. Furthermore the stem, gills and ring are bright yellow, not white.<ref>{{cite book | author = Haas H | year = 1969 | title = The Young Specialist Looks at Fungi| publisher = Burke | id=ISBN 0222794143}}</ref> Finally the volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales.<ref>{{cite book | author = Krieger LCC | year = 1967 | title = The Mushroom Handbook| publisher = Dover| id=ISBN 0486218619}}</ref>
In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the local ''[[Amanita xanthocephala]]'', which grows in association with Eucalypts. This species also generally lacks the white warts of ''A. muscaria'' and bears no ring.
== Classification ==
''Amanita muscaria'' is the [[type species]] of the genus ''[[Amanita]]''. By extension, it is also the type species of ''Amanita'' subgenus ''Amanita'', as well as section ''Amanita'' within this subgenus. ''Amanita'' subgenus ''Amanita'' includes all ''Amanita'' with [[wikt:inamyloid|inamyloid]] spores. ''Amanita'' section ''Amanita'' includes those species with patchy [[universal veil]] remnants, including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings and the veil remnants on the pileus being a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a bulbous base.<ref name=singer>[[Rolf Singer|Singer R]]. (1986). The Agaricales in modern taxonomy (4th ed). ISBN 3874292541</ref> <ref name=jenkins>Jenkins DT. (1986). ''Amanita'' of North America. ISBN 0-916422-55-0</ref>
''Amanita'' section ''Amanita'' consists of ''A. muscaria'' and its close relatives, including ''[[Amanita pantherina|A. pantherina]]'' (the panther agaric), ''[[Amanita gemmata]]'', ''[[Amanita farinosa|A. farinosa]]'', and ''[[Amanita xanthocephala|A. xanthocephala]]''.<ref>Tulloss RE. (2007). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/sectaman.html "''Amanita'' sect. ''Amanita''"] (webpage).</ref> Modern fungal taxonomists have classified ''Amanita muscaria'' and its allies this way based on gross morphology and spore inamyloidy. Two recent [[molecular phylogenetic]] studies have confirmed this classification as natural.<ref>Moncalvo J-M, Drehmel D, & Vilgalys R. (2000). [http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/moncalvo2000mpe.pdf Variation in modes and rates of evolution in nuclear and mitochondrial ribosomal DNA in the mushroom genus ''Amanita'' (Agaricales, Basidiomycota): phylogenetic implications.] ''Molecular Phylogenetic and Evolution'' '''16''':48_63. {{DOI|10.1006/mpev.2000.0782}}</ref> <ref>Drehmel D, Moncalvo J-M, & Vilgalys R. (1999). Molecular phylogeny of ''Amanita'' based on large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and character evolution. ''Mycologia'' '''91''': 610-618. ([http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/amanitaMYCOLOGIA.html abstract])</ref>
===Varieties===
[[Image:Amanita muscaria americana.jpg|thumb|right|''Amanita muscaria'' var.
''guessowii'' has a yellow cap surface.<br>[[Middlesex Fells Reservation|Middlesex Fells]], [[Massachusetts]]]]
''Amanita muscaria'' has considerable morphological variation and many authorities recogize a number of subspecies or varieties within the species. In ''The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy'', Rolf Singer listed three subspecies, though without description: ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''muscaria'', ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''americana'', and ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''flavivolvata''.<ref name=singer/>
Contemporary authorities recognize up to seven varieties:
* var. '''''muscaria''''', the typical red-and-white spotted variety. Some authorities, such as Rodham Tulloss, only use this name for Eurasian and western [[Alaskan]] populations.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss1>Tulloss RE. (2006a). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscmusc.html "''Amanita muscaria'' (L.:Fr.) Lam. var. muscaria"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''flavivolvata''''' is red, with yellow to yellowish-white warts, and occurs in the western regions of the North American continent, from southern Alaska down through the [[Rocky Mountains]], through [[Central America]], to at least Andean [[Colombia]]. Rodham Tulloss uses this name to describe all "typical" ''A. muscaria'' from indigenous New World populations from Alaska southward.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss2>Tulloss RE. (2006b). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscflav.html "''Amanita muscaria'' subsp. ''flavivolvata'' Singer"] ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''alba''''', an uncommon fungus, has a white to silvery white cap with white warts but otherwise similar to the usual form.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name = "Phillips91">{{cite book | author = Phillips R. | year = 1991 | title = Mushrooms of North America | publisher = Boston: Little, Brown & Co | id = ISBN 0-316-70612-4 (hardcover) ISBN 0-316-70613-2 (paperback)}}</ref>
* var. '''''formosa''''', has a yellow to orange-yellow cap with yellowish or tan warts and stem. Some authorities use this name for all ''A. muscaria'' fitting this description worldwide (cf, Jenkins), others (cf, Tulloss) restrict its use to Eurasian populations.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss3>Tulloss RE. (2006c). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscgues.html "''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''guessowii'' Veselý"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''guessowii''''' is yellow to orange, with center of cap more orange or reddish orange than the outer part. It is found throughout North America, but is most common in northeastern North America, from [[Newfoundland]] and [[Quebec]] down to [[Tennessee]]. Some authorities (cf, Jenkins) treat these populations as part of ''A. muscaria'' var. ''formosa'', while others (cf, Tulloss) recognize it as a distinct variety.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss3/>
* var. '''''persicina''''' is pinkish to orangish "melon" colored with poorly formed or absent remnants of universal veil on the stem and vasal bulb, known from the Southeastern Coastal areas of the U.S.A, described in 1977.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss4>Tulloss RE. (2006d). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscpers.html "''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''persicina'' Dav. T. Jenkins"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''regalis''''' (= ''Amanita regalis''), from [[Scandinavia]] and [[Alaska]],<ref>Miller OK. (1982). Higher fungi in Alaskan subarctic tundra and taiga plant communities. In: ''Arctic and Alpine Mycology'' (eds Laursen GA, Ammirati JF), p 123–149. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295958561</ref> is liver-brown and has yellow warts. It appears to be uniformly distinctive and some authorities (cf, Tulloss) treat it as a separate species, while others (cf, Jenkins) treat it as a variety of ''A. muscaria''.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss5>Tulloss RE. (2006e). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/regaliss.html "''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
A 2006 [[molecular phylogenetic]] study of different r
egional populations of ''A. muscaria'' by Geml, et al. found three distinct [[clades]] within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. (Alaska contains examples of all three clades, leading to the hypothesis that this was the center of diversification of this species.) The study also looked at four named varieties of this species; var. ''alba'', var. ''flavivolvata'', var. ''formosa'' (including var. ''guessowii''), and var. ''regalis'' from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are simply [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphisms]] found throughout the species rather than distinct subspecies or varieties.<ref name = "Geml06">Geml J, Laursen GA, O’Neill K, Nusbaum HC, Taylor DL. (2006). [http://users.iab.uaf.edu/~jozsef_geml/AmanitaME.pdf Beringian origins and cryptic speciation events in the fly agaric (''Amanita muscaria'')]. Molecular Ecology 15:225–239. {{DOI|10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02799.x}}</ref>
== Distribution and habitat==
''Amanita muscaria'' is a cosmopolitan mushroom, native to [[birch]], [[pine]], [[spruce]], and fir woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere,<ref name = "Geml06"/> including high elevations of warmer latitudes in regions like Central America. Interestingly, a recent molecular study proposes an ancestral origin in the [[Siberia|Siberian]]–[[Beringia|Beringian]] region in the [[Tertiary]] period before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America.<ref name = "Geml06"> </ref> Though generally encountered in autumn, the season can vary in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast. It is often found in similar locations to ''[[Boletus edulis]]''.<ref name = "Bnejamin95"/> It has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia,<ref>Reid DA (1980) A monograph of the Australian species of ''Amanita'' Persoon ex Hooker (Fungi). ''Australian Journal of Botany'', Supplementary Series '''8''':1–96</ref> New Zealand, South Africa<ref>Reid DA, Eicker A (1991) South African fungi: the genus ''Amanita''. ''Mycological Research'', '''95''', 80–95.</ref> and South America, where it usually occurs under introduced pine trees.
The fungal equivalent of a [[weed]] in southeastern Australia, it appears to have formed new associations with southern beech (''[[Nothofagus]]'') in [[Tasmania]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and invading native rainforest, where there are concerns it may be displacing native species.<ref>Fuhrer, Bruce (2005) A Field Guide to Australian Fungi. Bloomings Books. ISBN 1-876473-51-7</ref> Furthermore it appears to be spreading northwards with recent reports near [[Port Macquarie, New South Wales|Port Macquarie]] on the [[New South Wales]] north coast.<ref>May T. (2006). [http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/?f=16290 News from the fungimap president.] ''Fungimap Newsletter'' '''29''':1</ref>
When imported to a new country, ''A. muscaria'' can jump to native species (for example, ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' in [[Australia]]). It can then be exported with its new [[symbiont]] (for example, from Australia to Argentina).
== Biochemistry==
''Amanita muscaria'' contains a number of biologically active agents, at least two of which are known to be '''[[psychoactive]]'''. [[Muscimol]] (3hydroxy-5-aminomethy-1 isoxazole, an unsaturated cyclic [[hydroxamic acid]]) is the most significant. It is the product of the [[decarboxylation]] or drying of [[ibotenic acid]], another important compound in the biochemistry of the fly agaric. [[Muscarine]], discovered in [[1869]],<ref>Schmiedeberg O, Koppe R. (1869). Das Muscarin, das giftige Alkaloid des Fliegenpilzes. Leipzig: FCW Vogel.</ref> was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in ''A. muscaria'' until the mid 20th century,<ref>Kögl F, Salemink CA, Shouten H, Jellinek F. (1957). Über Muscarin III. ''Recueil des Travaux Chimi
ques des Pays-Bas'' '''76''':109–127.</ref> <ref>Cox HC, Hardegger E, Kögl F, Liechti P, Lohse F, Salemink CA. (1958). Uber Muscarin: Uber die Synthese von racemischem Muscarin, seine Spaltung in die Antipoden und die Herstellung von (x)-Muscarin aus D-Glucosamin. ''Helvetica Chimica Acta'' '''41''':229–234.</ref> when researchers in England,<ref>Bowden K, Drysdale AC. (1965). A novel constituent of ''Amanita muscaria''. ''Tetrahedron Letters'' '''6''': 727–728. {{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4039(01)83973-3}}</ref> Japan,<ref>Takemoto T, Nakajima T. (1964). Structure of ibotenic acid. ''Journal of the Pharmacological Society of Japan'' '''84''': 1232–1233.</ref> and Switzerland<ref>Eugster CH, Müller GFR, Good R. (1965). Active principles from ''Amanita muscaria'': ibotenic acid and muscazone. ''Tetrahedron Letters'' '''6''': 1813–1815. {{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4039(00)90133-3}}</ref> recognized that these effects were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol.<ref name ="Bnejamin95">Benjamin DR. (1995). ''Mushrooms, Poisons and Panaceas: A Handbook for Naturalists, Mycologists, and Physicians''. W H Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-2649-1</ref>
[[Ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]] are structurally related to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system: [[glutamic acid]] and [[GABA]] respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters (muscimol is a potent [[GABA A receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] [[agonist]]) which are involved in the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the brain dysfunction found in intoxication. Following ingestion ibotenic acid is rapidly decarboxylated to muscimol which would appear to be the agent responsible for the majority of symptoms.<ref name = "Michelot03"/><ref name="Satora05">Satora L, Pach D, Butryn B, Hydzik P, Balicka-Slusarczyk B. (2005). Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) poisoning, case report and review. ''Toxicon'' '''45''': 941-3. {{DOI|10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.01.005}}</ref> When muscimol is administered, it has been shown active in the [[cerebral cortex]], [[hippocampus]], and [[cerebellum]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
[[Muscazone]] is another compound more recently isolated from european specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by [[ultra-violet radiation]].<ref>Fritz H, Gagneux AR, Zbinden R & Eugster CH. (1965) The structure of muscazone. ''Tetrahedron Letters'' '''6''' 2075–2076. {{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4039(00)90133-3}}</ref> It is of minor [[Biological activity|pharmacological activity]] compared with the other agents.<ref name = "Michelot03"/>
[[Muscarine]] binds with [[Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor]] and lead to the excitation of the neurons bearing these receptors. The levels in ''Amanita muscaria'' are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi,<ref>Eugster CH. (1968). "Wirkstoffe aus dem Fligenpilz" ''Naturwissenschaften'', '''55''':305–13. {{DOI|10.1007/BF00600445}}</ref> such as the deadly ''[[Inocybe patouillardii]]'' or small white ''[[Clitocybe]]'' species ''[[Clitocybe dealbata|C. dealbata]]'' and ''C. rivulosa''.
[[Image:Amanita muscaria 2.jpg|thumb|right|''Amanita muscaria'' growing in autumn [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[woodland]]]]
===Toxicity===
Victims of ''Amanita muscaria'' poisoning are generally either toddlers or people ingesting it for a hallucinogenic experience.<ref name ="Bnejamin95">Benjamin DR (1995) Mushrooms: Poisons and Panaceas A Handbook for Naturalists, Mycologists, and Physicians. W H Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-2649-1</ref>. About one gram of ''A. muscaria'' or 50-100 mg ibotenic acid is considered a toxic dose.<ref name=chilton>Chilton WS. (1975). The course of an intentional poisoning. ''MacIlvanea'' 2: 17.</ref> <ref>von Theobald W, Büch O, Kunz HA, Krupp P, Stenger EG, Heimann H. (1968). Pharmacological and experimental psychological studies on 2 components of the toadstool (''Amanita muscaria''). Pharmakologische und experimentalpsychologische Untersuchungen mit 2 Inhaltsstoffen des Fliegenspilzes (''Amanita muscaria''). ''Arzneim Forschung'' '
''18''': 311–315.</ref>
Depending on the amount ingested effects can range from [[nausea]] and twitching to drowsiness, [[choline]]rgic effects (low [[blood pressure]], [[sweat]]ing and [[saliva]]tion), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, [[euphoria]], relaxation, and [[Vertigo (medical)|loss of equilibrium]]. Retrograde [[amnesia]] frequently results following recovery.<ref name="Benjamin92">Benjamin D. (1992). Mushroom poisoning in infants and children: the Amanita pantherina/muscaria group. ''Journal of toxicology: Clinical toxicology'' '''30''': 13-22.</ref> <ref name="Buck63">Buck R. (1963) Toxicity of Amanita muscaria. ''JAMA'' '''185''': 663-4.</ref> <ref name="Satora05"/>
In cases of serious poisoning it causes a [[delirium]], characterised by bouts of marked [[agitation]] with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods of [[CNS]] depression. [[Seizures]] and [[coma]] may also occur in severe poisonings.<ref name="Satora05"/> Effects typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for a number of days. <ref name=chilton/><ref name="Brvar06">Brvar M, Mozina M, Bunc M. (2006). Prolonged psychosis after Amanita muscaria ingestion. ''Wiener klinische Wochenschrift'' '''118''': 294-7.{{DOI|10.1007/s00508-006-0581-6}}</ref> In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 hours. The effect is highly variable and individuals can react quite differently to the similar doses.<ref name="Benjamin92"/><ref name=chilton> </ref> <ref name ="Ott76">Ott J. (1976) ''Hallucinogenic Plants of North America''. Wingbow Press, Berkeley, CA. ISBN 0-914728-16-4</ref>
Deaths from ''A. muscaria'' are extremely rare. A historical journal article reported 2 fatalities occurring in North America. <ref>Cagliari GE. (1897). Mushroom Poisoning. ''Medical Record'' '''52''': 298.</ref> Although with modern medical treatment the prognosis is generally good.<ref>Tupalska-Wilczyńska K, Ignatowicz R, Poziemski A, Wójcik H, Wilczyński G. (1996). Poisoning with spotted and red mushrooms--pathogenesis, symptoms, treatment. ''Wiadomości lekarskie'' '''49''': 66-71.</ref>
The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region, season to season, further confusing the issue. It has been reported that spring and summer mushrooms may contain up to 10 times as much ibotenic/muscimol as compared to fall fruitings.<ref name="Benjamin92"/> Many older books list it as deadly, giving the impression that it is far more toxic than it really is. The vast majority of [[mushroom poisoning]] fatalities (90% or more) are from having eaten either the greenish to yellowish to brownish mottled death cap (''[[Amanita phalloides|A. phalloides]]'') or one of the destroying angels (''[[destroying angel|Amanita virosa]]'').
The toxic substances of ''A. muscaria'' are water soluble and susceptible to heat. The mushroom can be at least partly detoxified by thoroughly parboiling or leaching it in boiling water because it is said that the ibotenic acid turns into muscimol under this heat. This supposedly removes several unpleasant side effects due to the conversion of the much more toxic ibotenic acid into muscimol. According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.<ref>Rubel W. (2006). [http://www.williamrubel.com/mushrooms/amanita-muscaria/ Amanita muscaria] (webpage).</ref>
Some people who use the heated or dried mushrooms for their psychoactive effects believe they are toxic to the [[liver]] with repeated use. It is seen as similar to, but more acute, than the use of alcohol.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
===Psychoactive properties===
[[Image:Basket of Amanita muscaria.png|thumb|A basket of ''A. muscaria''.]]
In contrast to hallucinogenic mushrooms of the ''[[Psilocybe]]'', ''Amanita muscaria'' is rarely consumed recreationally.<ref>Samorini G. (1992). The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara desert, 9000–7000 B.P.). ''Integration: Journal of Mind-Moving Plants Culture'' '''2/3''': 69–78.
</ref> It is [[Controlled Substances Act|unscheduled]] in the United States. Any sales of ''Amanita muscaria'' for human ingestion are regulated by the FDA. Most other countries do not have laws against the use of ''Amanita muscaria'', as it is currently legal and un-controlled under UN international law.
The active ingredient is excreted in the [[urine]] of those consuming the mushrooms, and it has sometimes been the practice for a [[shamanism|shaman]] to consume the mushrooms, and the rest of the [[tribe]] to drink his urine: the shaman, in effect, partially detoxifying the drug (the sweat- and twitch-causing muscarine is absent in the urine).<ref name = "Soma68">Wasson RG. (1968). ''Soma: The Divine Mushroom of Immortality''. Harcourt Brace Jovanovick, Inc. ISBN 0-15-683800-1</ref> This was also not an uncommon practice in Siberia, where the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy, who could afford to buy the mushrooms.<ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> If a fly agaric is eaten, it is usually not fresh, but in its dried or cooked form, where ibotenic acid is converted to the more stable and far less poisonous muscimol.
===Insecticidal properties===
The various common names come from its European use as an [[insecticide]], sprinkled in milk. This practice was first recorded by [[Albertus Magnus]] in his work ''De vegetabilibus'' sometime before 1256, commenting:
:::''vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas''
:::("It is called the mushroom of flies, because crushed in milk it kills flies")<ref name = "Ramsbottom53">{{cite book | author = Ramsbottom J | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | id = ISBN 1870630092}}</ref>
This was known to [[Linnaeus]] who gave it the name ''Agaricus muscarius'', the specific name deriving from [[Latin]] ''musca'' meaning "fly". Similar to its English common name, the [[German language|German]], ''Fliegenpilz'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Vliegenzwam'', [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ''Röd flugsvamp'' and [[French language|French]] ''Amanite tue-mouches'', are derived from this property. The flykilling agent is now known to be [[ibotenic acid]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Nilson S & Persson O | year = 1977 | title = Fungi of Northern Europe 2: Gill-Fungi | publisher = Penguin | id = ISBN 0140630066}}</ref> Another compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein which is an insect attractor.<ref name = "Bnejamin95"/> <ref>Muto T, Sugawara R. (1970). Contribution in: Insect Behaviour of Natural Products (Paper Seminar) 1968: 189.</ref> Fly agaric is still used in this manner in parts of eastern Europe such as Poland and Romania. In England and Sweden it was also used for getting rid of bugs, and ''bug agaric'' was an old alternate name.<ref name = "Ramsbottom53"/>
== Cultural history ==
[[Image:Fliegenpilz01.JPG|thumb|right|Group of ''Amanita muscaria'', Westerholter Wald, [[Gelsenkirchen]], [[Germany]].]]
''Amanita muscaria'' was widely used as a [[hallucinogenic drug]] by many of the [[peoples of Siberia]]. Its use was known among almost all of the [[Uralic]]-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the [[Paleosiberian]]-speaking peoples of eastern Siberia. However, there are only isolated reports of ''A. muscaria'' use among the [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] and [[Turkic peoples]] of central Siberia and it is believed that hallucinogenic use of ''A. muscaria'' was largely not a practice of these peoples.<ref name="nyberg1">Nyberg H. (1992). Religious use of hallucinogenic fungi: A comparison between Siberian and Mesoamerican Cultures. Karstenia 32:71–80.</ref> <ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> In western Siberia, the use of ''A. muscaria'' was restricted to [[shamans]], who used it as an alternate method of achieving a trance state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve a trance state by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, ''A. muscaria'' was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously.<ref name="nyberg1"> </ref>
The [[Koryaks|Koryak]] of eastern Siberia have a
story about the fly agaric (''wapaq'') which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity [[Vahiyinin]] ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his spittle became the ''wapaq'', and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the ''wapaq'', Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, can learn from it.<ref name = "Ramsbottom53">{{cite book | author = Ramsbottom J | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | id=ISBN 1870630092}}</ref>
Beyond Siberia, there are only isolated and unconfirmed reports of the hallucinogenic use of ''Amanita muscaria''. One source mentions that it was once used among the [[Lapps]], but no firsthand accounts of this exist.<ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> [[:de:Hartmut Geerken|Hartmut Geerken]] claims to have discovered a tradition of recreational use this mushroom among a [[Parachi]]-speaking group in [[Afghanistan]].<ref> Mochtar, S.G. & H. Geerken. (1979). [http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/references/journal/1979_mochtar_afghanistan1.shtml The Hallucinogens Muscarine and Ibotenic Acid in the Middle Hindu Kush: A contribution on traditional medicinal mycology in Afghanistan.] Afghanistan Journal 6:62-65. (Translated with additional notes by Peter G. Werner, 1997.)</ref> There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of ''A. muscaria'' among two Subarctic [[Native American]] tribes, the [[Ojibway]]<ref>Keewaydinoquay. (1978). Puhpohwee for the people: a narrative account of some uses of fungi among the Ahnishinaubeg. Cambridge, MA: Botanical Museum of Harvard University. ISBN 1879528185</ref> <ref>Navet E. (1988). Les Ojibway et l'Amanite tue-mouche (''Amanita muscaria''). Pour une éthnomycologie des Indiens d'Amérique du Nord. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 74:163–180.</ref> and the [[Dogrib]].<ref>Larsen S. (1976). The Shaman's Doorway. New York: Station Hill Press. ISBN 0892816724</ref>
There are also claims that ''Amanita muscaria'' played in important role in a number of ancient religious rites, though these claims tend to be speculative and highly controversial. The best known of these claims is [[R. Gordon Wasson]]'s proposition that ''A. muscaria'' was the [[Soma]] talked about in [[Rig Veda]] of [[India]],<ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> and is less often also thought to be the [[amrita]] talked about in [[Buddhist]] scriptures.<ref name=siddhas>Hajicek-Dobberstein S. (1995). Soma siddhas and alchemical enlightenment: psychedelic mushrooms in Buddhist tradition. ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 48:99–118. {{DOI|10.1016/0378-8741(95)01292-L}} </ref> (''For more details on this topic, see'' [[Botanical identity of Soma-Haoma]].)
[[John Marco Allegro]] argues in ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'' that the [[Christian]] religion is derived from a sex and psychedelic mushroom cult,<ref>
{{cite book | author = Allegro, John. | year = 1970 | title = The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross: A Study of the Nature and Origins of Christianity within the Fertility Cults of the Ancient Near East | publisher = Hodder and Stoughton | location = London| id = ISBN 0-340-12875-5}}</ref>, although his theory has found little support by other scholars.{{Lopsided}}
The British writer [[Robert Graves]] theorizes in a preface to his book, [[The Greek Myths]], that the [[Dionysian]] rites were conducted under the influence of this mushroom.<ref>Graves R. (1955) ''The Greek Myths'', London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-001026-2</ref>
The notion that Nordic [[Viking]]s used ''Amanita muscaria'' to produce their [[berserker]] rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödman in 1784.<ref>Ödman S. (1784) Försök at utur Naturens Historia förklara de nordiska gamla Kämpars Berserka-gang (An attept to Explain the Berserk-raging of Ancient Nordic Warriors through Natural History). ''Kongliga Vetenskaps Academiens nya Handlingar'' '''5''': 240-247 (In: Wasson, 1968)</ref> Ödman based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans. The notion has become widesp
read since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers. Today, it is generally considered an urban legend or at best speculation that cannot be proven. Muscimole is a mild relaxant, and is unlikely to cause violent rage.
Ethnobotanist and ethnomycologist [[Giorgio Samorini]] suggests in his book "Animals and Psychedelics" a [[symbiotic]] relationship between toads, flies and fly agaric. Flies, after a lick of ''Amanita muscaria'' become inebriated and delirious prey for hungry toads that may have learned this, therefore hanging out around [[toadstool]]s. This relationship within nature illuminates an [[etymological]] keystone and example of [[zoopharmacognosy]]. This would also provide further [[biosemiotic]] insight into the ancient mystery of toads, flies and mushrooms appearing together in popular mythology and fairy lore.{{dubious}}
== Popular culture ==
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|[[Image:Amanite tue-mouche.JPG|thumb|The classic shape, well known in popular culture.]]
|-
|[[Image:Mushroom.jpg|thumb|A Super Mushroom as seen in ''[[Mario Kart: Double Dash!!]]'']]
|}
The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture, especially in children's books, film and more recently computer games; a partly grown ''Amanita muscaria'', as shown right, is clearly the fungus which this icon is based on.
===Children's culture===
Garden ornaments, and children's picture books depicting [[gnome]]s and [[fairies]], such as the [[Smurf]]s, very often show fly agaric mushrooms used as seats, or homes; it is rather uncommon for any other identifiable mushroom to be shown in this role. How this artistic convention arose is not known. Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series [[Mushroom (Mario)|Super Mario Bros.]] and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film [[Fantasia (film)|Fantasia]].<ref name = "Ramsbottom53">{{cite book | author = Ramsbottom J | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | id = ISBN }}</ref>
===Art===
The mushroom is mentioned in the song "The Flowers of Guatemala" by the American band [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]], providing the song's central image.
The band Shelleyan Orphan has an instrumental song entitled "Amanita Muscaria" on their 1989 album "Century Flower".
Image's dating back to 3500BC painted in caves at [[Tassili]], Algeria, depict mushrooms, more than likely including Amanita Muscaria Mushrooms acording to scholars. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6084218]
Fly agaric mushrooms appear on Christmas cards from around the world.
[[Carsten Höller]] created an Upside Down Mushroom Room featuring Amanita Muscaria [http://www.airdeparis.com/holler.htm]
===Santa Claus===
The [[Ethnobotany|ethnobotanist]] [[Jonathan Ott]] has suggested that the idea of [[Santa Claus]] and tradition of hanging stockings over the fireplace is based centrally upon the fly agaric mushroom itself.<ref name ="Ott76">Ott J. (1976) Hallucinogenic Plants of North America. Wingbow Press, Berkeley, CA. ISBN 0-914728:16-4 </ref> With its generally red and white color scheme, he argues that Santa Claus's suit is related to the mushroom. He also draws parallels with flying reindeer: reindeer are said to enjoy the mushroom because of its euphoric results, and therefore prance around in a hallucinogenic after-effect. It is true that reindeer will eat fly agarics, but there is no proof that it has any kind of mental effects on them. A direct connection to Santa Claus is not very likely, as until the [[20th century]], the red-and-white [[Santa suit]] familiar today was not especially common (''see also:'' [[Origins of Santa Claus]]). One scholar researching possible links between religious myths and the red mushroom notes, "If Santa Claus had but one eye [like [[Odin]]], or if [[Amanita muscaria#Uses|magic urine]] had been a part of his legend, his connection to the ''Amanita muscaria'' would be much easier to believe."<ref name=siddhas> </ref>
Ott also speculates abou
t Santa's bag of toys. According to historians, ancient [[Siberia]] was one of the first civilizations to use fly agaric in practice.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The Siberian hut, or [[yurt]], is equipped with a smokehole at the top. Ott suggests that a [[shaman]] entered the yurt through the smokehole with a sack of mushrooms in his hand, to be placed in stockings over the fireplace where they could be dried for celebratory use.
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* Högberg O. Flugsvampen och människan. (In Swedish) ISBN 91-7203-555-2
**[http://web.archive.org/web/20050505081819/http://www.carlssonbokforlag.se/humaniora/dox/Korrigeringar+Flugsv.pdf Chapter 2]
* Michelot D, Melendez-Howell LM. (2003) [http://www.erowid.org/references/refs_view.php?A=ShowDocPartFrame&C=ref&ID=6472&DocPartID=6005 ''Amanita muscaria'': chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology.] Mycological Research 107:131–146. {{DOI|10.1017/S0953756203007305}}
* [[Richard Evans Schultes|Schultes RE]], [[Albert Hofmann|Hofmann A]], Rätsch C. (2001). Plants of the gods: their sacred, healing, and hallucinogenic powers (2nd ed). ISBN 0892819790
* [[Peter Lamborn Wilson]]. "Ploughing the Clouds: The Search for Irish [[Soma]]"[http://www.amazon.com/Ploughing-Clouds-Search-Irish-Soma/dp/0872863263]</div>
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{commons}}
*[http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/dec99.html "Fungus of the Month: ''Amanita muscaria'', the fly agaric"] by Tom Volk, December 1999.
*[http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscmusc.html "''Amanita muscaria'' (L.:Fr.) Lam. var. muscaria"] by Rodham Tullos, ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages'', July 3, 2006.
*[http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscflav.html "''Amanita muscaria'' subsp. ''flavivolvata'' Singer"] by Rodham Tullos, ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages'', January 16, 2006.
*[http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Amanita_muscaria.html "Amanita muscaria"] by Michael Wood and Fred Stevens, ''Mykoweb.com'', 2004.
*[http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/amanitas.shtml Erowid Psychoactive Amanitas], ''[[Erowid.org]]'', Jan 3, 2007.
*[http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=47 Amanita muscaria], ''Lycaeum.org'', November 30, 2000.
*[http://www.shroomery.org/6234/Amanita-Muscaria Amanita muscaria], ''Shroomery.org'', 2007.
*[http://www.intox.org/databank/documents/fungi/aminita/pimg026.htm "Amanita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and others"], ''IPCS INTOX Databank''.
*[http://cannabisculture.com/articles/3136.html "The psychedelic secrets of Santa Claus"] by Dana Larsen, ''Cannabis Culture Magazine'', December 18, 2003. – An article which suggests modern Christmas traditions are based on ancient ''Amanita muscaria''-eating shamans of the northern steppes.
*[http://www.vodoushaman.com/flyagaric.html "Fly Agaric, Father Christmas and Lunch with a Toxicologist"] by Ross Heaven, ''Voudoushamen.com''.
*{{Myspace|amanitamuscaria_|Amanita Muscaria}}
{{Hallucinogenic mushrooms}}
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Basidiomycetes]]
[[Category:Psychoactive mushrooms]]
[[Category:Poisonous mushrooms]]
[[Category:Fungi naturalized in Australia]]
