Canna

Read about Canna in the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture
Canna (name of oriental origin, of no application). Cannaceae. Popular tall ornamental plants, prized for their stately habit, strong foliage and showy flowers; much used for bedding. Stout, unbranched: fls. mostly red or yellow, in a terminal raceme or panicle, very irregular: caps. 3-loculed and several to many-seeded (Fig. 779, p.) ; sepals(s) 3 and small and usually green; petals (ccc) 3, mostly narrow and pointed, green or colored; style (e) single and long; the stamens are commonly petal-like, oblanceolate bodies or staminodia (aaab), 2 or 3 of which are usually much produced and broadened, and one is deflexed and narrower and forms the lip of the fl. (b); the pollen is borne in a single-loculed anther (f), borne on the side of a narrow and more or less coiled staminodium.— In the latest monograph, 1912 (Kranzlin, in Engler's Pflanzenreich, hft. 56), 51 species of Canna are described from subtropical and tropical Amer. and Asia. A generation or two ago, cannas were grown for their foliage or mass-effect. They were tall and long-jointed, with small and late flowers (Fig. 780). An old-time garden race of tall cannas was C. Annaei, raised by M. Annee, of France, from seeds of the true C. nepalensis, sown in 1848. The flowers from which the seeds were taken probably had been pollinated by some other species, most likely with C. glauca. In 1863, a new race appeared, as the result of the union of C. iridiflora with C. Warscewiczii. This hybrid was known as C. Ehemanni (and C. iridiflora hybrida). This was of intermediate stature, with showy foliage and better drooping flowers. Under this name plants are still sold, but they may not be identical with the original C. Ehemanni. This race has been variously crossed with other species and forms, and from innumerable seedlings there have been selected the dwarf and large-flowered cannas (Figs. 781,782), which have now practically driven out the old tall small-flowered forms. These dwarf cannas are often known as French cannas, from the country of their origin; also, as Crozy cannas, from a renowned breeder of them. Within recent years, another race of cannas has arisen from the amalgamation of our native C. flaccida with the garden forms and with C. iridiflora. These have come mostly from Italy and are known as Italian cannas; also as orchid-flowered cannas. The flowers are characterized by soft and flowing iris-like outlines, but they are short-lived. Of this class are the varieties Italia (Fig. 783), Austria, Bavaria, Burgundia, America, Pandora, Burbank and others. For a sketch of the evolution of the garden cannas, see J. G. Baker, Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc., Jan., 1894; also, for the history of the Italian race, Revue Horticole, 1895. 516, and Gardeners' Chronicle, Dec. 14, 1895; Kranzlin, cited above. The culture of cannas is simple and easy. They demand a warm, friable, rich and moist soil. They are injured by frost, and therefore should not be planted out until the weather is thoroughly settled. For dense mass effects, set the plants not more than 1 foot apart each way, but if it is desired to show individual plants and their flowers at the best, give three times that amount of room to a single plant. Pick the flowers as soon as they wilt, to prevent the formation of seeds (which causes the plant to lessen flowering), and keep the plants in tidy condition. Give the soil and treatment that produce the best results with Indian corn. New varieties are raised from seeds. The seeds usually germinate slowly, and sometimes not at all, unless the integument is cut or filed, or is softened by soaking in water; these precautions taken, they germinate quickly. Sow late in winter, in rather strong bottom heat, in flats or pots. Prick out, and give plenty of room. They should make blooming plants the first year. Commonly, cannas are propagated by dividing the rootstock. This rootstock is a branchy mass, with many large buds. If stock is not abundant, as many plants may be made from a rootstock as there are buds, although the weak buds produce weak plants. Leave as much tissue as possible with each bud. These one-bud parts usually give best results if started in pots, so that the plant is 6 to 12 inches high at planting time. The commercial canna plants are grown mostly in pots. If one has sufficient roots, however, it is better not to cut so close, but to leave several strong buds on each piece (as shown in Fig. 784). These pieces may be planted directly in the ground, although more certain results are to be secured by starting them in the house in boxes or pots. If strong effects are desired, particuarly in shrub borders, it is well to plant the entire stool. In the fall, when tho plants are killed by frost and the tops have dried a few days, dig the roots, and let them dry, retaining some of the earth on them. Then store them on shelves in a cellar that will keep Irish or round potatoes well. Take care that the roots do not become too warm, particularly before cold weather sets in; nor too moist. Well-cured roots from matured plants usually keep without much difficulty. If they do not hold much earth, it is well to throw a thin covering of light soil over them, particularly if they are the highly improved kinds. Cannas are commonly used only in formal beds, but most excellent effects may be secured by scattering them singly or in very small clumps in the hardy border or amongst shrubbery. Against a heavy background of green, the gaudy flowers show to their best, and the ragged effect of the dying flowers is not noticed. They also make excellent centerpieces for formal beds. The tall-growing cannas, with small and late flowers, have given way almost wholly to the modern race of Crozy or French dwarf cannas, which usually remain under 4 feet high, and give an abundance of large early flowers. The canna always must be used for bold planting effects, because the flowers have not sufficient durability to be very useful as cut- flowers. As individual blooms, the flowers are not usually attractive, but they are showy and interesting in the mass and at a distance. The new race of Italian or Flaccida cannas has more attractive flowers, but even these are most useful when on the plant. It is impossible for the gardener to determine species of canna in the common garden forms. In fact, the species are little known except in herbaria and as wild plants growing in their original habitats. The monographers do not agree as to the definitions of what have been described as original or wild species. The following account of species is included more for the purpose of showing the range within the genus and of making a catalogue of leading botanical names than to set specific limits or to indicate what species- forms are in cultivation. The Crozy experiments began with crossing C. Warscewicsii with a variety of C. nepalensis of gardens (C. flaccida?) having large yellow flowers and very long creeping tubers; and some of the progeny was crossed with C. aureopicta (a garden form). The recent attractive orchid-flowered cannas spring largely from the C. flaccida forms. The above text is from the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. It may be out of date, but still contains valuable and interesting information which can be incorporated into the remainder of the article. Click on "Collapse" in the header to hide this text.

?

Canna

Italian Group Canna cultivated in Brazil

Plant Info

Scientific classification

Kingdom:	Plantae
Division:	Magnoliophyta
Class:	Liliopsida
Order:	Zingiberales
Family:	Cannaceae
Genus:	Canna

Species

19 classified species, see list below

Canna (or Canna lily, although not a true lily) is a genus of nineteen species of flowering plants. Cannas (particularly C. indica) are sometimes known as "Indian Shot", as their seeds are small, round, and hard like the once home-made lead shot used for shotguns before the twentieth century. The closest living relations to cannas are the other plant families of the order Zingiberales, that is the gingers, bananas, marantas, heliconias, strelitzias, etc.

Canna is the only genus in the family Cannaceae. Such a family has almost universally been recognized by taxonomists. The APG II system of 2003 (unchanged from the APG system, 1998) also recognizes the family, and assigns it to the order Zingiberales in the clade commelinids, in the monocots.

The species have large, attractive foliage and horticulturists have turned it into a large, brash, bright and sometimes gaudy, garden plant. In addition, it is one of the world's richest starch sources, and is an agricultural plant.

Although a plant of the tropics, most cultivars have been developed in temperate climates and are easy to grow in most countries of the world as long as they can enjoy about 6 hours average sunlight during the summer. See the Canna cultivar gallery for photographs of Canna cultivars.

The name Canna originates from the Celtic word for a cane or reed [Johnsons 1856, Chaté 1866].

Botany

Canna (Foliage Group) 'Auguste Ferrier'

The plants are large tropical and subtropical perennial herbs with a rhizomatous rootstock. The broad, flat, alternate leaves, that are such a feature of this plant, grow out of a stem in a long narrow roll and then unfurl. The leaves are typically solid green but some cultivars have glaucose, brownish, maroon, or even variegated leaves.

The flowers are composed of three sepals and three petals that are seldom noticed by people, they are small and hidden under extravagant stamens. What appear to be petals are the highly modified stamens or staminodes. The staminodes number (1–) 3 (–4) (with at least one staminodal member called the labellum, always being present. A specialised staminode, the stamen, bears pollen from a half-anther. A somewhat narrower, 'petal' is the pistil which is connected down to a three-chambered ovary.

The flowers are typically red, orange, or yellow or any combination of those colours, and are aggregated in inflorescences that are spikes or panicles (thyrses). Although gardeners enjoy these odd flowers, nature really intended them to attract pollinators collecting nectar and pollen, such as bees, hummingbirds and bats. The pollination mechanism is conspicuously specialized (pollen is shed on the style while still in the bud, and later pollinators alight on the labellum and touch first the terminal stigma, then the pollen).

The wild species often grow to 2-3+ meters but there is a wide variation in size among cultivated plants; numerous cultivars have been selected for smaller stature.

Canna grow from swollen underground stems, correctly known as rhizomes, which store starch, and this is the main attraction of the plant to agriculture, having the largest starch particles of all plants.

Canna is the only member of the Liliopsida Class (monocot family) in which hibernation of seed is known to occur, due to its hard, impenetrable seed covering.

Range

Canna sp. 'pink dancer' in Escambray Mountains, Cuba

The genus is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the New World, from the southern United States (southern South Carolina west to southern Texas) and south to northern Argentina.

Although all cannas are native to the New World, they have followed mankind's journeys of discovery and some species are cultivated and naturalized in most tropical and sub-tropical regions.

Canna cultivars are grown in most countries, even those with territory above the Arctic circle, which have short summers but long days, and the rapid growth rate of Cannas makes them a feasible gardening plant, as long as they get their 6 hours of sunlight each day during the growing season and are protected from the cold of winter.

Origins

Canna (Crozy Group) 'Alberich', Pfitzer 1949

"The first Cannas introduced to Europe were C. indica L., which was imported from the East Indies, though the species originated from the Americas. Charles de l'Ecluse, who first described and sketched C. indica in his Histoire des plantes rare observées en Espagne, published in 1576, indicates this origin, and states that it was given the name of indica, not because the plant is from India, in Asia, but because this species was originally transported from America: "Quia ex America primum delata sit"; and at that time, one described the tropical areas of that part of the globe as the Western Indies; English speakers still call them the West Indies.

Much later, in 1658, Pison made reference, in his Histoire naturelle du Brésil, to another species which he documented under the vulgar or common name of 'Albara' and 'Pacivira', which resided, he said, in the shaded and damp places, between the tropics; this species is Canna angustifolia L., (later reclassified as C. glauca L. by taxonomists).

Without exception, all Canna species that have been introduced into Europe can be traced back to the Americas, and it can be asserted with confidence that Canna is solely an American genus. If Asia and Africa provided some of the early introductions, they were only varieties resulting from C. indica and C. glauca cultivars that have been grown for a long time in India and Africa, with both species imported from Central and South America.

Canna is an American genus, as pointed out by Lamarck in his Botanical Encyclelopédie, were he argues that "Cannas were unknown to the ancients, and that it is only after the discovery of the New World, that they made their appearance in Europe; Since Canna have very hard and durable seed coverings, it is likely that seed remains would have survived in the right conditions and found by archaeologists in the Old World. If the soils of India or Africa had produced some of them, they would have been imported before the 1860’s into European gardens.

Uses

Canna (Italian Group) 'Yellow King Humbert'

Some species and many cultivars are widely grown in the garden in temperate and sub-tropical regions. Sometimes, they are also grown as potted plants. A large number of ornamental cultivars have been developed. They can be used in herbaceous borders, tropical plantings, and as a patio or decking plant.
Internationally, cannas are one of the most popular garden plants and a large horticultural industry depends on the plant.
The canna rhizome is rich in starch, and it has many uses in agriculture. All of the plant has commercial value, rhizomes for starch (consumption by humans and livestock), stems and foliage for animal fodder, young shoots as a vegetable and young seeds as an addition to tortillas.
Agricultural Cannas have the potential to be a rich producer of biofuels Template:Fact because of its outstanding starch production, and ability to thrive in temperate climates as well as the tropics. This is a young area of research and we have to wait for research results before commenting further on this use.

Detail of the seed pods and seeds. The seeds are used for jewelry and musical instruments.

The seeds are used as beads in jewelry.
The seeds are used as the mobile elements of the kayamb, a musical instrument from Réunion, as well as the hosho, a gourd rattle from Zimbabwe, where the seeds are known as "hota" seeds.
In remoter regions of India, cannas are fermented to produce alcohol.
The plant yields a fibre - from the stem - it is used as a jute substitute.
A fibre obtained from the leaves is used for making paper. The leaves are harvested in late summer after the plant has flowered, they are scraped to remove the outer skin and are then soaked in water for 2 hours prior to cooking. The fibres are cooked for 24 hours with lye and then beaten in a blender. They make a light tan brown paper.
A purple dye is obtained from the seed.
Smoke from the burning leaves is said to be insecticidal.
Cannas are used to extract many undesirable pollutants in a wetland environment as it has a high tolerance to contaminants.

Classification of Cannas

Species

In the last three decades of the 20th century, Canna species have been categorised by two different taxonomists, Paul Maas, from the Netherlands and Nobuyuki Tanaka from Japan. Both reduced the number of species from the 50-100 that had been accepted previously, and assigned most to being synonyms. Inevitably, there are some differences in their categorisations, and the individual articles on the species describes those differences.

Canna amabilis T. Koyama & Nb. Tanaka
Canna bangii Kraenzl.
Canna coccinea Blanc.
Canna compacta Rosc.
Canna discolor Lindl.
Canna flaccida Salisb.
Canna glauca L.
Canna indica L.
Canna iridiflora Ruiz & Pav.
Canna jacobiniflora T. Koyama & Nb. Tanaka

Canna jaegeriana Urban.
Canna liliiflora Warsc. ex Planch.
Canna paniculata Ruiz & Pav.
Canna patens Rosc.
Canna pedunculata Sims
Canna plurituberosa T. Koyama & Nb. Tanaka
Canna speciosa Rosc.
Canna stenantha Nb. Tanaka
Canna tuerckheimii Kraenzl.

Horticultural Cannas

Canna (Crozy Group) 'Theresa Blakey'

See the Canna (Plant) Gallery for photographs of Canna cultivars.

Cannas became very popular in Victorian times as a garden plant and were grown widely in France, Germany, Hungary, India, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the USA and have recently experienced a renewed interest and revival in popularity. There were once many hundreds of cultivars but many of these are now extinct.

In recent years many new cultivars have been created, but the genus suffers from having many synonyms for many popular ones. Most of the synonyms were created by plant growers attempting to market their stock. Research has accumulated over 2,300 cultivar names, however, many of these are simply synonyms.

The first hybridisation of Cannas was performed in 1848 by a gentleman gardener, Monsieur Théodore Année of Passy, France (Canna x annaei André). He was rapidly joined by many other enthusiasts and professional horticulturists as Canna hybrids enjoyed rapid popularity in France. Amongst the professionals was the rose breeder Monsieur Antoine Crozy (1831-1903) of Avoux & Crozy, La Guillotière, Lyon, France, who first started hybridising Cannas in 1862 and continued introducing new canna cultivars at a rapid rate until his death in 1903, giving his name to a whole new group of floriferous Canna cultivars. Crozy aîné (French for "elder"), as he was universally known, was succeeded by his son, Michel Crozy (1871-1908), (Canna x hortensis Guill.).

Canna (Italian Group) 'Austria'

In the early 1900's, Professor Liberty Hyde Bailey defined, in detail, two garden species (C. x generalis and C. x orchiodes) to categorise the floriferous Cannas being grown at that time, namely the Crozy hybrids and the ‘orchid-like’ hybrids introduced by Carl Ludwig Sprenger in Italy and Luther Burbank in the USA, at about the same time (1894). The definition was based on the genotype, rather than the phenotype, of the two cultivar groups. Inevitably, over time those two floriferous groups were interbred, the distinctions became blurred and overlapped, and the Bailey species names became redundant.

Pseudo-species names are now deprecated by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants which, instead, provides Cultivar Groups for categorising cultivars ( see groups at Canna Gallery).

In more recent times there have been several firms and individuals who have made major contributions to the cultivar range, Messrs Wilhelm Pfitzer of Stadt Fellbach in Germany produced over 300 new cultivars up until the early 1950's, while Messrs Vilmorin-Andrieux & Cie in France produced a considerable number of new cultivars during the last century.

Although thought of primarily as Rose Hybridists, the US firm of Conard Pyle Co. also contributed large numbers of cultivars in the early part of the 1900's, under the guidance of it's chief hybridist Antoine Wintzer, and more recently we have had a new collection of Conservatory Group and Aquatic Group cultivars originated by Dr Robert Armstrong of Longwood Gardens, Pennsylvania, USA.

Meanwhile, the Agri Horticultural Society of India, located in Kolkata, firstly under the Secretaryship of Percy Lancaster in 1892 and later that of his son Sydney Percy-Lancaster, raised the Alipore Canna Collection, which dominated canna throughout that continent. Over 100 new varieties are known to have been raised by the society during that period, as well as importing the latest favourites from Europe and the USA.

Agricultural Cannas

Canna achira is a generic term used in South America to describe the cannas that have been selectively bred for agricultural purposes, normally derived from C. discolor. It is grown especially for its edible rootstock from which starch is obtained, but the leaves and young seed are also edible, and achira was once a staple foodcrop in Peru and Ecuador. Little explored, is the possibility of its rich starch content being used to produce biofuel.Template:Fact

Farming Varieties

There are some named agricultural varieties, and published comparative studies have involved:

C. 'Thai-purple'
C. 'Thai-green'
C. 'Japanese Green'
C. 'Chinese Purple'

Canna (Agriculture Group) 'Edulis Dark'

Many more traditional varieties exist world-wide, they have all involved human selection and so are classified as agricultural cultivars. Traditionally, Canna edulis has been reputed to be the variety grown for food in South America, but there is no scientific evidence to substantiate the name. It is probable that edulis is simply a synonym of C. discolor, which is grown for agricultural purposes throughout Asia.

In the Andes, the rhizome can be harvested within 6 months from planting out and the yields range from 13 - 85 tonnes per hectare, with 22 - 50 tonnes being average, though larger yields are obtained after 8 - 10 months.

Most cultivated forms do not produce fertile seed. There are also sterile triploid forms, these contain a significantly higher proportion of starch, though their cropping potential is not known.

Animal fodder

The rhizomes and leaves are good fodder for cattle and pigs and it is grown for this purpose in Hawaii, where it is harvested 4-8 months after planting.

Human consumption

Canna is still grown for human consumption in the Andes and also in Vietnam and southern China, where the starch is used to make cellophane noodles.

Edible qualities

Rootstock - actually a rhizome, this can be eaten either raw or cooked. It is the source of canna starch which is used as a substitute for arrowroot. The starch is obtained by rasping the rhizome to a pulp, then washing and straining to get rid of the fibres. This starch is very digestible. The very young rhizomes can also be eaten cooked, they are sweet but fibrousy. The rhizome can be very large, sometimes as long as a person's forearm. In Peru the rhizomes are baked for up to 12 hours by which time they become a white, translucent, fibrous and somewhat mucilaginous mass with a sweetish taste. The starch is in very large grains, about three times the size of potato starch grains, and can be seen with the naked eye. This starch is easily separated from the fibre of the rhizome.

Young shoots - these can be cooked and eaten as a green vegetable and are quite nutritious, containing at least 10% protein.

Seeds - the immature seeds are cooked in fat in tortillas.

Cultivation

Canna (Miniature Group) 'Oberon'

Cannas grow best in full sun with moderate water in well-drained rich or sandy soil. Cannas grow from perennial rhizomes but are frequently grown as annuals in temperate zones for an exotic or tropical look in the garden.

The rhizomes are marginally cold hardy but may rot if left unprotected in freezing conditions. In areas which go below about −10 °C in the winter, the rhizomes can be dug up before freezing and stored in a protected area (above +7 °C) for replanting in the spring. Otherwise, it is recommended that Cannas are protected by a thick layer of mulch overwinter.

Pests

Cannas are largely free of pests but in the USA plants sometimes fall victim to the Canna Leaf Roller and the resultant leaf damage can be most distressing to a keen gardener.

Slugs and snails are fond of Cannas and can leave large holes in the leaves, preferring the tender young leaves that have not yet unfurled. Red Spider Mite can also be a problem for Cannas grown indoors or during a very hot, long summer outdoors.

Disease

Canna are remarkably free of disease, compared to many genus. However, they may fall victim to canna rust, a fungus resulting in orange spots on the plant's leaves, caused by over moist soil. Cannas are also susceptible to certain plant viruses, some of which are Canna specific viruses, which may result in spotted or streaked leaves, in a mild form, but can finally result in stunted growth and twisted and distorted blooms and foliage.

The flowers are sometimes affected by a grey, fuzzy mould called Botrytis. Under humid conditions it is often found growing on the older flowers. Treatment is to simply remove the old flowers, so the mould does not spread to the new flowers.

Propagation of Canna

Sexual propagation

Canna fruit (green) and ripe seed pods

Seeds are produced from sexual reproduction, involving the transfer of pollen from the stamen of the pollen parent onto the stigma of the seed parent. In the case of Canna, the same plant can usually play the roles of both pollen and seed parents, technically referred to as a hermaphrodite. However, the cultivars of the Italian Group and triploids are almost always seed sterile, and their pollen has a low fertility level. Mutations are almost always totally sterile.

Pollination

The species are capable of self-pollination, but most cultivars require an outside pollinator. All cannas produce nectar and therefore attract nectar consuming insects, bats and hummingbirds that act as the transfer agent, spreading pollen between stamens and stigmas, on the same or different inflorescence.

Genetic changes

Since genetic recombination has occurred a cultivar grown from seed will have different characteristics to its parent(s) and thus should never be given a parent’s name. The wild species have evolved in the absence of other Canna genes and are deemed to be ‘true to type’ when the parents are of the same species. In the latter case there is still a degree of variance, producing various varieties or minor forms (forma). In particular, the species C. indica is an aggregate species, having many different and extreme varieties and forma ranging from the giant to miniature, from large foliage to small foliage, both green and dark foliage and many different coloured blooms, red, orange, pink, and yellow and combinations of those colours.

Asexual propagation

Micropropagation of Canna

Division of plant parts

Outside of a laboratory, the only asexual propagation method that is effective is rhizome division. This is done by using material from a single parent, and as there is no exchange of genetic material such vegetative propagation methods almost always produce plants that are identical to the parent. After a summer’s growth the horticultural Canna can be separated into typically four or five separate smaller rhizomes, each with a growing nodal point (‘growing eye’). Without the growing point, which is composed of meristem material, the rhizome will not grow.

Micropropagation

Micropropagation, or tissue culture as it is also known, is the practice of rapidly multiplying stock plant material to produce a large number of progeny plants. Micropropagation using in vitro (in glass) methods that produce plants by taking small sections of plants and moving them into a sterile environment were they first produce proliferations that are then separated from each other and then rooted or allowed to grow new stem tissue. The process of plant growth is regulated by different ratios of plant growth regulators or PGRs, that promote cell growth. Many commercial organizations have attempted to produce Canna this way, and specifically the “Island Series” of Cannas was introduced by means of mass produced plants using this technique. However, Cannas have a reputation of being difficult micropropagation specimens.

Note Micropropagation techniques can be employed on specimens infected with Canna virus and used to dis-infest plants of the virus, it is possible to use a growing shoot tip as the explant, the growing tip is induced into rapid growth, which results in rapid cell division that has not had time to be infected with the virus. The rapidly growing region of meristem cells producing the shoot tip is cut off and placed in vitro, with a very high probability of being uncontaminated by virus, since it has not yet had contact with the sap of the plant which moves the virus within the plant. In this way, healthy stock can be reclaimed from virus contaminated plants.

References

Bailey, L.H. - Canna x generalis. Hortus, 118 (1930); cf. Standley & Steyerm. in Fieldiana, Bot., xxiv. III.204 (1952).
Bailey, L.H. - Canna x orchiodes. Gentes Herb. (Ithaca), 1 (3): 120 (1923).
Chaté, E. - Le Canna, 1866.
Cooke, Ian. 2001. The Gardener's Guide to Growing Canna, Timber Press. ISBN 978-0881925135
de l'Ecluse, Charles - Histoire des plantes rare observées en Espagne, 1576.
Grootjen, C. J. and F. Bouman. 1988. Seed structure in Cannaceae: Taxonomic and ecological implications. Ann. Bot. (Oxford) n. s. 61: 363--371.
Johnson's Gardner's Dictionary, 1856.
Khoshoo, T.N. & Guha, I. - Origin and Evolution of Cultivated Cannas. Vikas Publishing House.
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste - Botanical Encyclelopédie.
Kress, W. J. 1990. The phylogeny and classification of the Zingiberales. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 77: 698--721.
Kress, W. J. and D. E. Stone. 1982. Nature of the sporoderm in monocotyledons, with special reference to the pollen grains of Canna and Heliconia. Grana 21: 129--148.
Lerman, J. C. and E. M. Cigliano. 1971. New carbon-14 evidence for six hundred years old Canna compacta seed. Nature 232: 568--570.
Maas, P. J. M. 1985. 195. Cannaceae. In: A. R. A. Görts-van Rijn, ed. 1985+. Flora of the Guianas. Series A: Phanerogams. 1212+ volsfasc. Königstein. VolFasc. 1, pp. xx--xx69--73 .
Maas, P. J. M. and H. Maas. 1988. 223. Cannaceae. In: G. Harling et al., eds. 1973+. Flora of Ecuador. 5660+ volsnos. Göteborg. VolNo. 32, pp. 1--9.
Percy-Lancaster, S., An Amateur in an Indian Garden. 1927.
Pison - Histoire naturelle du Brésil, 1658.
Rogers, G. K. 1984. The Zingiberales (Cannaceae, Marantaceae, and Zingiberaceae) in the southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor. 65: 5--55.
Segeren, W & Maas, PJM - The genus Canna in northern South America (1971), Acta Botanica Neerlandica. 20(6): 663-680.
Tanaka, N. 2001. Taxonomic revision of the family Cannaceae in the New World and Asia. Makinoa ser. 2, 1:34–43.
Woodson, R. E. Jr. and R. W. Schery. 1945. Cannaceae. In: R. E. Woodson Jr. et al., eds. 1943--1981. Flora of Panama. 41 fasc. St. Louis. [Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 32: 74--80.]
Yeo, P. F. 1993. Secondary pollen presentation: Form, function and evolution. Pl. Syst. Evol., Suppl. 6: 204--208.

External links

Template:Sisterlinks