Fruit growing
Read about Fruit growing in the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture
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Fruit-Growing comprises all the knowledge and practice that are directly concerned in the producing and handling of fruits. Pomology (literally, science of fruits) is synonymous with fruit-growing. There has been an effort to divorce the terms pomology and fruit-growing, making the former to comprise the scientific and classificatory subjects and the latter the practical subjects; but such division is arbitrary and is opposed to usage. The word "growing" can no longer be held, when used in such connection, to designate merely the planting and care of fruit-plants, for all good practice is necessarily associated with scientific knowledge and theory. Fruit-growing is a more familiar and homely term than the Latin-Greek word pomology, and for that reason it has seemed to some persons to be less adaptable to the formal presentation of the knowledge connected with fruits. It is significant, however, that with the exception of Prince's "Pomological Manual," the fruit books that have done much to mold public opinion in America have not been known as pomologies, notwithstanding the fact that the greater number of them have given great attention to formal descriptions of varieties. The term pomology is founded on the Latin pomum, a word that was used generically for "fruit." In later Latin it came to be associated more particularly with the apple-like fruits. The word is preserved to us in the French pomme, meaning "apple," and in other languages of Latin derivation. In English we know it as pome, a botanical term used to designate fruits that have the peculiar morphological structure of the apple and pear. This use of the term is explained under the article Pyrus. However, the root of the word pomology is derived from the Latin pamum rather than from the botanical pome. The limitations of fruit-growing, as art and discussion, depend on the use of the word "fruit." This word, as used by the horticulturist, is impossible of definition. Products that are classed with fruits in one country may be classed with vegetables in another. To the horticulturist a fruit is a product that is closely associated, in its origin, with the flower. As used in this country, it is the product of a bush or tree or woody vine, the most marked exception being the strawberry. Most fruits may be grouped under three general heads, —orchard or tree fruits, vine fruits (of which the grape is the type), and small-fruits or "berries." Of the orchard fruits, the leading groups are the pome-fruits (apple, pear), drupe-fruits (peach, plum, cherry), and the citrus-fruits (orange, lemon). Of the small-fruits, we may distinguish the bush-fruits (raspberry, blackberry, currant, gooseberry, blueberry), cranberry, and the strawberry. There are many fruits, particularly in the tropics, that do not fall within these groups. The species of fruits that are fairly well known in North America are not less than 150, but- the important commercial species are not more than forty. Fruit-growing is the most important and characteristic horticultural interest of North America. It is of high excellence as measured by commercial standards, quantity of product, and the quickness with which scientific theory and discovery are applied to it. Most remarkable examples of the quick assimilation and application of theoretical teachings are afforded by the readiness with which fruit-growers within recent years have adopted the ideas associated with tillage, spraying, pollination, fertilizing, pruning, inter-planting, and the modifications in conditions of marketing. Yet, great as have been the advances, progress has only begun; and in the precise and painstaking application of the best teaching the American fruit-grower has much to acquire. The American ideals in fruit-growing are quite unlike the European. The American aims at uniformity over large areas. The European gives more attention to special practices, particularly in training of fruit trees. This is well illustrated in American nurseries as contrasted with European nurseries (see Nursery). The American merely prunes his fruit trees in the nursery: he does not train them. The American is likely to give most attention to the fruit by the bushel or by the barrel; the European is likely to consider his fruits singly or in small numbers, and often to sell them by the piece or by the dozen. In many parts of North America, the extension of fruit-growing is the most radical change of base taking place in farming operations. This growth of the fruit business is possible because the consumption of fruit is increasing, the facilities for transportation have been improved, scientific discovery has insured the production of good crops, and also because many other kinds of farming have been relatively unprofitable. While the phenomenal development of American fruit-growing has been due in great measure to climatic and economic conditions, it also has been hastened by book writings. More than fifty authors have contributed books of greater or less size, either on the general subject or on special fruits, beginning with Coxe's "View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees" in 1817, and followed by Thacher's "American Orchardist" in 1822. These pioneer writings gave much of their space to orchard management, with little mere compilation of descriptions of varieties. Subsequent volumes, for nearly fifty years, were in large part compilations and collations of accounts of varieties. To this latter class belong the works of Prince, Kenrick, Downing, Thomas, Warder. It is only in the present time that we have come to treat the subject fundamentally, by giving the weight of discussion to principles of orchard management. (For lists of books, see the article Literature.) In recent years, the bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the many experiment stations, and the extensive discussion in the rural press, have greatly spread the knowledge of fruit-growing and have undoubtedly stimulated its practice. The sources of American fruits—of the species and races that arc cultivated on this continent—are chiefly four: (1) Original or early importations of western Asian and European fruits; (2) oriental types, from the China-Japanese region; (3) the introduction within fifty years of fruits from the Russian region; (4) the development of native species. In the first group are included the prevailing types of apples, pears, quinces, cherries, domestic plums, olives, currants, some of the gooseberries. In the second group are citrous fruits, peaches, apricots, Japanese plums, kaki, and others, many of them having come to us by way of Europe. In the third class—the Russian fruits—are types of orchard fruits of such recent introduction that we have only recently ceased disputing violently about their merits and demerits; therefore a special review of the subject is given at the close of this article. The fourth class—the native fruits—includes the grapes of the eastern states, blackberries, dewberries, raspberries, many gooseberries, strawberries (of Chilean origin), many plums, cranberries, blueberries, and a few apples. Recently, there has been much interest in fruit growing on the part of persons who desire to establish themselves on the land. The attractiveness of fruit appeals to them, and they think that the raising of it is not laborious and that the business is adaptable to beginners. This is one expression of amateurism. Fruit growing entails continuous, active and often hard, disagreeable labor, and, in the case of most orchard fruits, it requires long waiting for perfect results. The business demands much special knowledge, quick action, and first-rate salesmanship. The competition is sharp. Persons should enter the business with caution, and only with a full comprehension of the elements of failure and success. The business has additional risk when one must leave the property to be managed and cared for by hired labor. Usually, the most profitable results are secured when part of the farm is devoted to other products than fruit, for one is then able to employ help and equipment more advantageously, to raise produce for the teams and other live-stock, and to have secondary sources of revenue. In North America, it is chiefly the commercial large- area fruit-growing that is most highly developed. The amateur phase,—for fancy and for home use,—was once relatively more important, as explained in a subsequent paragraph. The "fruit garden" is now little seen. It is very desirable, however, that the growing of the choicest fruits in the most painstaking personal way shall be encouraged amongst us; and with the further development of the country this will take place if writers do not overlook the subject. The progress in fruit-growing. The development of American fruit-growing is well illustrated in the radical change of ideals within recent time. These new points of view may be arranged conveniently under seven general heads: (1) The most important shift is the fact that there is a horticultural industry as distinguished from a general agricultural industry. At the opening of the nineteenth century American agriculture was more or less homogeneous, largely because the extent of it was limited and because there was little demand for other than the few staple commodities. The horticulture of that time was confined chiefly to a small area about the homestead. A few vegetables, flowers and fruits in a small plantation, with here and there a single greenhouse, represented the horticultural effort of .the time. At the present day we conceive of great geographical areas as horticultural regions. Persons now buy farms with the explicit purpose of devoting them to the production of fruits or other horticultural products. Even sixty years ago horticulture was largely an amateur's avocation, but today it is one of the leading commercial occupations of the country, and the most important single factor in it is fruit-growing. With this rise of the horticultural industries came a demand for new knowledge on a host of subjects which were unheard of even as late as a half-century ago. The contemporary progress in pomology is largely a breaking away from the old ideals. Practices that were good enough for amateur purposes, or for the incidental and accidental fruit growing of our fathers, may be wholly inadequate to the new-time conditions. A century ago there was practically no commercial orcharding. The apple was grown somewhat extensively in many parts of the country, particularly in New England, but it was used chiefly for the making of cider. Small-fruit growing, as a business, had not developed. In fact, commercial strawberry-growing (the most readily developed of the fruit-growing industries) may be said to have begun with the introduction of the Hovey in 1836, although previously there were market plantations of small extent about some of the larger towns. The commercial culture of blackberries and raspberries, although it began about the middle of the century, did not acquire distinct importance until after the reaction from the Civil War. The fruit-growing industries now constitute a distinct branch or department of our agricultural condition, in the newer regions as well as in the old. In fact, great areas of virgin lands are now put at once into orchards. (2) With the rise of commercial fruit-growing, there have developed novel questions related to marketing. The new marketing revolves about three centers: (a) The necessity for special products for special uses, (6) the growing demand for small packages, and (c) the remarkable development of transportation facilities and of pre-cooling, handling, and storage. There has arisen an increased desire for special grades and for particular kinds of fruit. The fruits that were current fifty years ago may not be good enough for the markets of today. Commercial fruit-growing rests on the fact that more persons are consuming fruits. Many of these persons buy only in small lots for present consumption. They go to the market often. They have no facilities for storing the fruit, and they do not buy for the purpose of selling. Therefore, the small package has come to be increasingly more important. There has been a widespread demand for a package that can be given away with the fruit. This demand for the small and individual package may be expected to increase with all the better kinds of fruits or with those that appeal to the personal customer. This is true in all lines of trade. Not so long ago, boots and shoes were distributed in large board cases, but now each pair is sold in a neat cardboard box. We are still conservative in respect to the handling of apples in barrels. In the general trade and for the staple varieties of apples, the barrel may continue to be the best package, but for the personal customer and particularly with all the finer or dessert varieties, a small package must come into use. In most parts of the world, except in the central and eastern part of the United States, apples are not handled in barrels. The fact that the grower must give attention to his package as well as to the growing of his crop, forces him to adopt a new point of view in his fruit-growing and to visualize his market or even his customer. (3) Modern commercial orcharding has developed the tillage ideal. Under the old regime, the tree was able to take care of itself and to bear a product good enough to meet the uncritical demands. Nowadays, however, the tree must receive the very best of care, for annual crops of great quantity and of the best quality are desired. Therefore, the plant must be supplied with abundance of plant-food and moisture. Time was when it was thought that the mere application of chemical plant-food to the soil would be sufficient to make a plant productive. It is now understood, however, that plant-food is only one of the requisites of good growth. The soil must be deep and loose and fine, so that it will hold moisture and promote all those chemical and biological activities that make the land to be productive. In former times the best attention in tillage was given to the annual crops. The orchard was usually in neglect. This was because the fruit plantation had small commercial importance. Now that the fruit plantation has risen to first importance, in many cases, it must be given as good care as any farm crop. In recent years there has been great development of special tools and implements for the tillage of orchard lands. Greater attention is given to the original preparation of the land, so that planters no longer ask how large the hole must be to receive a tree, but accept Warder's advice that the hole should be as large as the orchard. The philosophy of orchard tillage, as understood by the best teachers and for most parts of the country, is (a) to prepare the land thoroughly at the outset, (6) to give frequent light surface tillage in the early part of the season or until the crop is nearly or quite grown, and then (c) to cover the land with some crop that will remain on the ground over winter and be plowed under in spring. If the land has been well prepared, it is not necessary to plow it deep after the first two or three years, unless one is turning under a heavy cover-crop. The surface tilth may be secured by breaking the top-soil early in spring with a cutaway harrow, gang-plow or other surface-working tools. This may not be possible, however, on very heavy lands. The cover-crop adds humus and protects the land from puddling and baking in the winter. If it is a leguminous crop it also adds a store of available nitrogen. It is possible, perhaps, to use cover-crops so freely that the land becomes too full of vegetable matter, but all such dangers are easily avoidable. Usually the cover-crop is plowed under in spring at the very earliest opportunity in order to save the soil moisture. It is by no means the universal practice to use cover-crops on fruit lands, but the practice is now accepted, and the grower may adopt it or not as his judgment dictates. To facilitate the economical and efficient tillage of fruit lands, it is coming to be the practice to devote the land wholly to the fruits. The fertility of the land is not permanently divided between trees and hay, or trees and other crops. With plums and pears and some other orchard fruits, it is often allowable to use the intermediate land for the first two or three years for annual crops, but these crops should gradually diminish and every caution should be taken that they do not interfere with the care of the trees. Apple orchards, when the spaces are 40 feet apart, may be cropped for six or eight years without injury, providing good tillage and other efficient treatment are given. One reason for allowing orchards to stand in sod in the old times was the difficulty in plowing beneath full-grown trees. Those persons who desired to plow and till their orchards, therefore, advocated very high pruning. The difficulty with these old orchards was the fact that the land was allowed to run into dense sod. Heavy plowing in an old orchard indicates that the plantation has been neglected in previous years. Orchards that have been well tilled from the first do not require much laborious tillage, and the roots are low enough to escape tillage tools. There has been a development of tillage tools which will do the work without necessity of pruning the tops very high. The practice of tilling orchards has increased rapidly. At first it was advised by a few growers and teachers( but the movement is now so well established that it will take care of itself, and in the commercial orchards the man who does not till his orchard is the one who needs to explain. On the Pacific coast, the importance of tillage is universally recognized because of the dry summer climate. The necessity of tilling orchards has forced a new ideal on the pomologist; and when he goes to the expense of tilling he feels the necessity of giving sufficient care in other directions to insure profitable returns from his plantation. It is true, to be sure, that orchards sometimes thrive under sod treatment, but these are special cases. Of the same purpose with tillage is irrigation,—the purpose to fit the land for its work. Great fruit regions in the western half of the continent are on an irrigation basis and a special literature on fruit-raising under such conditions is now appearing. This irrigation that trees will bear without pruning. This, therefore, puts a premium on neglect. The old practice allowed the tree to grow at will for three or four years and to become so full of brush that the fruit could not be well harvested, and then the top was pruned violently. The tree was set into redundant growth and was filled with water-sprouts. This tended also to set the tree into wood-bearing rather than into fruit-bearing. By the time the tree had again begun fruit-bearing, the orchardist went at it with axe and saw and a good part of the top was taken away. It is now understood that the ideal pruning is that which prunes a little every year and keeps the tree in a uniformly healthy and productive condition. The pruning of trees has now come to be a distinct purpose, and this ideal must gain in definiteness and precision so long as fruit trees are grown. The practice proceeds on established principles, and is not of the nature of discipline. (5) Now that there is demand for the very best products, it is increasingly important that fruits be thinned. The thinning allows the remaining fruits to grow larger and better, it saves the vitality of the tree, and it gives the orchardist an opportunity to remove the diseased specimens and thereby to contribute something toward checking the spread of insects and fungi. Thinning is exceedingly important in all fruits that are essentially luxuries, as peaches, apricots and pears. It is coming also to be important for apples and for others of the cheaper fruits. In the thinning of fruits, there are two rules to be kept in mind: (a) Remove the injured, imperfect or diseased specimens; (b) remove practice for fruit is another expression of the idea that in the future nothing is to be left to chance so far as it is within the power of the grower to prevent it. For certain intensive fruit-culture, particularly of berries, special irrigation practices are appearing in the East, and often they make the difference between failure and success. (4) As competition increases, it is necessary to give better attention to pruning. It is unfortunately true sufficient fruit so that the remaining specimens stand at a given distance from each other. How far apart the fruit shall be, depends on many conditions. With peaches it is a good rule not to allow them to hang closer than 4 or 5 inches (sometimes 7 or 8 inches), and in years of heavy crops they may be thinned more than this. This extent of thinning often removes two-thirds of the fruits. It nearly always gives a larger bulk of fruit, which brings a higher price. Thinning is usually performed very early in the season, before the vitality of the tree has been taxed, and after the normal "drop" from non-pollination has occurred. (6) Spraying of fruit plantations has now come to be a definite purpose and an established orchard practice; no good orchardist is now without his spraying apparatus any more than he is without his tillage tools. When spraying was first advised, the practice seemed to be so revolutionary that great emphasis had to be laid on its importance to induce people to undertake it. How and when to spray and what materials to use are matters that will always be discussed, because the practices must vary with the season, the kind of fruit, the geographical region, the insects and fungi to be combated. Spraying may not be necessary every year, and certainly not equally necessary in all geographical regions; but the fact that spraying is necessary as a general orchard practice is now completely established. A proof of the firm hold that spraying has taken of the fruit-growing business is afforded by the great numbers and the mechanical excellence of the machinery and devices now on the market; and this fact also attests the vitality of fruit-growing as an occupation. A special literature has developed on fruit diseases and fruit insects and the means of combating them, and the grower must keep fully informed by means of the government, state and provincial publications. (7) Perhaps the most gratifying modern development in fruit-growing is the demand for instruction in fundamental principles, or in the reasons why. Years ago, the grower was satisfied if he had definite directions as to how to perform certain labor. He was told what to do. At present, the pomologist wants to be told what to think. There seems to be a tendency in horticultural meetings to drop the discussion of the mere details of practice and to give increasingly more attention to the underlying reasons and the results that are to be expected from any line of practice. Knowing why a practice should be undertaken and what the results are likely to be, the grower can work out the details for himself, for every fruit plantation and every farm is, in a certain way, a law unto itself. There must be a rational procedure; the details and the applications are complex: therefore the fruit-growing subjects become effective means of education. Systematic pomology. The classifying and describing of the kinds of fruits is a particular kind of pomological knowledge that is left to specialists, who are for the most part writers. With the increase in numbers of varieties, it becomes increasingly more important that the most careful attention be given to describing them and to assembling them into their natural groups in order that similar kinds may be compared and also that it may be possible to determine the name by analyzing the specimen. Necessarily, all classificatory schemes for varieties are imperfect since the varieties often differ by very slight characters, and these characters may vary in different regions and under varying conditions. Theoretically, the most perfect classification is one that considers characters of flowers as well as of fruits, but such schemes are usually impracticable because fruit-growers cannot secure flowers and fruits at the same time. For examples of classificatory schemes the reader may consult the various fruit manuals, but the following examples from the older literature will show something of the range and method connected with the problem: John J. Thomas' scheme for classifying peaches: Division I. Freestones or Melters. Class I. Flesh pale or light-colored. Section 1. Leaves serrated, without glands. Section 2. Leaves crenate, with globose glands. Section 3. Leaves with reniform glands. Class II. Flesh deep yellow. Section 1. Leaves crenated, with globose glands. Section 2. Leaves with reniform glands. Division II. Clingstones or Pavies. Class I. Flesh pale or light-colored. Section 1. Leaves serrated, without glands. Section 2. Leaves crenate. with globose glands. Section 3. Leaves with reniform glands. Class II. Flesh deep yellow. Section 1. Leaves serrate, without glands. Section 2. leaves with reniform glands. Class III. Flesh purplish crimson. Section 1. Glands reniform. Following is John A. Warder's scheme for classifying apples, adopted "after a long and careful consideration and study of this subject." See Figs. 1595, 1596. Class I. Oblate or flat, having the axis shorter than the transverse diameter. Order I. Regular. Order II. Irregular. Section 1. Sweet. Section 2. Sour. Subsection 1. Pale or blushed, more or less, but self-colored and not striped. Subsection 2. Striped or splashed. Subsection 3. Russeted. Class II. Conical, tapering decidedly toward the eye, and becoming ovate when larger in the middle and tapering to each end, the axial diameter being the shorter. Orders I and II, as above. Sections 1 and 2. as above. Subsections 1, 2 and 3, as above. Class III. Hound, globular or nearly so, having the axial and transverse diameters about equal, the former often shorter by less than one-quarter of the latter. The ends are often so flattened as to look truncated, when the fruit appears to be cylindrical or globular-oblate. Orders, Sections and Subsections as above. Class IV. Oblong, in which the axis is longer than the transverse diameter, or appears so. These may also be truncate or cylindrical. Orders, Sections and Subsections as above. Robert Hogg's classification of pears ("Fruit Manual," 5th ed., London): A. The length from the base of the stalk to the base of the cells greater than from the base of the cells to the base of the eye. Section 1. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the eye greater than the lateral diameter. Section 2. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the eye less than the lateral diameter. Section 3. Length from the base of the stalk of the base of the eye equal to the lateral diameter. B. The length from the base of the stalk to the base of the cells less than from the base of the cells to the base of the eye. Section 1. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the eye greater than the lateral diameter. Section 2. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the eye less than the lateral diameter. Section 3. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the eye equal to the lateral diameter. c. The length from the base of the stalk to the hue of the cells equal to that from the base of the cells to the base of the eye. Section 1. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the eye greater than the lateral diameter. Section 2. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the eye less than the lateral diameter. Section 3. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the eye equal to the lateral diameter. A stable and attractive systematic pomology must give careful attention to the names of varieties. In North America much has been done, particularly under the auspices of the American Pomological Society, to simplify and codify the ideas associated with the nomenclature of fruits. The current rules or code of nomenclature of the American Pomological Society are as follows: Priority. Rule 1. No two varieties of the same land of fruit shall bear the same name. The name first publicized for a variety shall be the accepted and recognized_ name, except in cases where it has been applied in violation of this code. (a) The term "kind," as herein used, shall be understood to apply to those general classes of fruits which are grouped together in common usage without regard to their exact botanical relationship: as, apple, cherry, grape, peach, plum, raspberry, etc. (b) The paramount right of the originator, discoverer, or introducer of a new variety to name it, within the limitations of this code, is recognized and emphasized. (c) Where a variety name through long usage has become thoroughly established in American pomological literature for two or more varieties, it should not be displaced nor radically modified for either sort, except in cases where a well-known synonym can be advanced to the position of leading name. The several varieties bearing identical names should be distinguished by adding the name of the author who first described each sort, or by adding some other suitable distinguishing term that will insure their identity in catalogues or discussions. (d) Existing American names of varieties which conflict with earlier published foreign names of the same, or other varieties, but which have become thoroughly established through long usage, shall not be displaced. Form of names. Rule 2. The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of a single word, whenever possible, or compatible with the most efficient service to pomology. Under no circumstances shall more than two words be used. When the exigencies of a case make it appear expedient, such words as early, late, white, red, and similar ones may be used as a part of a name. (a) No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to existing varieties in some important characteristic nor until it has been determined to perpetuate it by bud-propagation. (b) In selecting names for varieties the following points should be emphasized: distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation and spelling, indication of origin or parentage. (c) The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived from a personal or geographical name should be governed by the rules that control the spelling and pronunciation of the name from which it was derived. There are relatively few special technical terms used in the descriptions of pomological fruits. The greater part of them pertain to the pome fruits. The diagrams (Figs. 1595, 1596) illustrate some of these terms: Spherical, nearly or quite globular, the two diameters being approximately equal; conical, longitudinal diameter equaling or exceeding the transverse diameter, and the shoulders or apex somewhat narrowed; ovate, broad- conical, the base more rounded; oblong, longitudinal diameter distinctly the longer, but the fruit not tapering; oblate, distinctly flattened on the ends. In the true Japanese or sand pears, the fruit is usually apple-form. In Fig. 1596 are shown special parts of the fruit: basin, the depression at the apex, in which is the calyx or eye; cavity, the depression at the base, in which is the stem or stalk; suture, or the groove on the side of plums and other fruits; corrugated or furrowed sides. The outline shape of an apple or pear is best seen by cutting the fruit in halves lengthwise; the flat side may then be used to print the form on paper. If descriptions are to be accurate and comparable, they should characterize all the leading or designative attributes of the fruit, and to a less extent of the plant as a whole. Many persons who are called on to describe varieties have adopted "forms" or regular outlines, in order that all characterizations in any one fruit shall be comparable. The following forms, adopted by the late John Craig, illustrate the points that a good description should cover: Name Farm………………………..Size…………….. Cavity……………….. stem…………….. Suture…………………..apex……………….... Skin…………………………color………………….... Flesh…………………….juice………………………….... Stone…………………. Quality………………………….. Flavor…………….. season…………………………….. Tree General Notes Specimens received from……………………. Described by………………….. Date………………… Cherry……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Group. Name Farm………………………..Size…………….. Cavity……………….. stem…………….. Suture…………………..apex……………….... Skin…………………………color………………….... Flesh…………………….juice………………………….... Stone…………………. Quality………………………….. Flavor…………….. season…………………………….. Tree General Notes Specimens received from……………………. Described by………………….. Date………………… Apple……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Group.
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References
- Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963
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